Paraphrasing Essay

Paraphrasing and summarizing are very similar. Both involve taking ideas, words or phrases from a source and crafting them into new sentences within your writing. In addition, summarizing includes condensing the source material into just a few lines. Whether paraphrasing or summarizing, credit is always given to the author. Below is a passage taken from Raymond S. Nickerson’s â€Å"How We Know-and Sometimes Misjudge-What Others Know: Imputing One’s Own Knowledge to Others.† Psychological Bulletin 125.6 (1999): p737. In order to communicate effectively with other people, one must have a reasonably accurate idea of what they do and do not know that is pertinent to the communication. Treating people as though they have knowledge that they do not have can result in miscommunication and perhaps embarrassment. On the other hand, a fundamental rule of conversation, at least according to a Gricean view, is that one generally does not convey to others information that one can assume they already have. Here is an example of what would be considered plagiarism of this passage: For effective communication, it is necessary to have a fairly accurate idea of what our listerners know or do not know that is pertinent to the communication. If we assume that people know something they do not, then miscommunication and perhaps embarrassment may result (Nickerson, 1999). The writer in this example has used too many of Nickerson’s original words and phrases such as â€Å"effective communication,† â€Å"accurate idea,† â€Å"know or do not know,† â€Å"pertinent,† â€Å"miscommunication,† and â€Å"embarrassment.† Also note that the passage doesn’t have an opening tag to indicate where use of the Nickerson’s material begins. A citation at the end of a paragraph is not sufficent to indicate what is being credited to Nickerson. Here is an example, in APA style, that is considered acceptable paraphrasing of this passage: Nickerson (1999) suggests that effective communication depends on a generally accurate knowledge of what the audience knows. If a speaker assumes too much knowledge about the subject, the audience will either misunderstand or be bewildered; however, assuming too little knowledge among those in the audience may cause them to feel patronized (p.737). Here the writer re-words Nickerson’s idea about what determines effective communication. The writer re-phrases â€Å"generally accurate knowledge† into â€Å"reasonably accurate idea.† In the second sentence,  the writer re-words Nickerson’s ideas about miscommunication and embarrassment using instead the words â€Å"misunderstand,† â€Å"bewildered,† and â€Å"patronized.† Nickerson is given credit from the beginning as the originator of the ideas. This is an example of a successful paraphrase because the writer understands the ideas espoused by Nickerson, and is able t o put them into her own words while being careful to give him credit. Here is an example, in APA style, that would be considered acceptable summarizing of this passage: Nickerson (1999) argues that clear communication hinges upon what an audience does and does not know. It is crucial to assume the audience has neither too much nor too little knowledge of the subject, or the communication may be inhibited by either confusion or offense (p. 737). Notice that the writer both paraphrases Nickerson’s ideas about effective communication and compresses them into two sentences. Like paraphrasing, summarizing passages is a tricky endeavor and takes lots of practice. If you’re ever in doubt about whether your summary or paraphrase might be accidental plagiarism, ask your teacher. Example of Editing Original: The novel Fight Club works to accomplish multiple things in terms of theme, for one thing it tries to show the destructive tendencies of humanity, how in many ways people are geared towards the destruction of themselves, but the movie also tried to reject this idea, to show that we can never embrace this aspect of ourselves, because if we do we’ll end up just like that, in destruction, and as the main character find out in the end, what’s more important is making connections with people and understanding others rather than living only for yourself and breaking any rules which disagree. Edited: The novel Fight Club work to accomplish numerous things thematically, for one it attempts to express the tendencies of mankind to devolve to embrace self destruction, and on the other it attempts to show how this can be nothing but futile. If we simply embrace self destruction then we fail to see the importance and value of the people around us, and we simply live to bre ak rules, which is no way to live at all. Effective Paraphrasing A successful paraphrase is your own explanation or interpretation of another person’s ideas. Paraphrasing in academic writing is an effective way to restate, condense, or clarify another author’s ideas while also providing credibility to your own argument or analysis. While successful paraphrasing is essential for strong academic writing, unsuccessful paraphrasing can result in unintentional plagiarism. Look through the paraphrasing strategies below to better understand what counts as an effective paraphrase. Ineffective Paraphrasing Strategies When paraphrasing, there are a few common mistakes you should learn to avoid: 1. Avoid switching out or changing around of a few words in an author’s sentence(s) for use in your paper. 2. Avoid failing to acknowledge (through an in-text citation or direct quotes) the outside source from which you obtained your information or ideas. Exception: When paraphrasing, you do not have to directly cite common knowledge. Common knowledge is information that is widely known and can be found in multiple places. For example, writing that Ronald Reagan was a U.S. Republican president would be considered common knowledge, so it would not need to be cited. However, when in doubt, it is always better to cite than run the risk of plagiarism. 3. Acknowledging the author in an in-text citation but failing to include quotation marks around any terms or phrasing that you have borrowed from the author. Note that any of the unsuccessful elements of paraphrasing are considered plagiarism in your essay , even if these paraphrasing missteps are unintentional. Effective Paraphrasing Strategies If you’re having trouble paraphrasing a text effectively, try following these steps: 1. Reread the original passage you wish to paraphrase, looking up any words you do not recognize, until you think you understand the full meaning of and intention behind the author’s words. 2. Next, cover or hide the passage. Once the passage is hidden from view, write out the author’s idea, in your own words, as if you were explaining it to your instructor or classmates. 3. After you have finished writing, check your account of the author’s idea against the original. While comparing the two, ask yourself the following questions: Have I accurately addressed the author’s ideas in a new way that is unique to my writing style and scholarly voice? Have I tried to replicate the author’s idea or have I simply changed words around in his/her original sentence(s)? 4. Next, look for any borrowed terms or particular phrases you have taken from the original passage. Enclose these terms and phrases in quotation marks to indicate to your readers that these words were taken directly from the original text. 5. Last, include a citation, which should contain the author’s name, the year, and the page or paragraph number (if available), directly following your paraphrase. Examples of Paraphrasing Here is the original source an author might use in a paper: Differentiation as an instructional approach promotes a balance between a student’s style and a student’s ability. Differentiated instruction provides the student with options for processing and internalizing the content, and for constructing new learning in order to progress academically. Here is an example of bad paraphrasing of the source. Even though the student is citing correctly, underlined words are simply synonyms of words used in the original source. You can also see how the sentence structure is the same for both the original source and this paraphrase. Differentiation is a way to encourage equality between the approach and talent of the student (Thompson, 2009). This type of instruction gives students different ways to deal with and grasp information, and for establishing new learning to move on in education (Thompson, 2009). Here is an example of a better way to paraphrase the source. In this example, the author has taken the essential ideas and information from the original source, but has worded it in her own way, using unique word choice and sentence structure. The author has condensed Thompson’s (2009) information, including what is relevant to her paper, but leaving out extra details that she does not needed. Teachers use differentiated instruction to help students learn, allowing the teacher to cater lessons to the way each student learns and each student’s skill (Thompson, 2009). – See more at: http://writingcenter.waldenu.edu/295.htm#sthash.EKKl31Ro.dpuf Paraphrasing and summarising In contrast to quoting directly, by summarising or paraphrasing an author’s ideas you are able to present your interpretation of an author’s ideas and to integrate them more fully into the structure of your writing. Paraphrasing is generally used when you wish to refer to sentences or phrases in the source text. It is particularly useful when you are dealing with facts and definitions. Paraphrasing involves rewriting a short section from the source text in different words whilst keeping the same meaning. Summarising is generally used when you wish to refer to ideas contained in a long text. Summarising enables you to reduce the author’s ideas to key points in an outline of the discussion or argument by omitting unnecessary details and examples. Whether you summarise or paraphrase, you will still need to include a reference citing the source of the ideas you have referred to. A process for paraphrasing and summarising Many students find the following process useful for summarising and paraphrasing information. Read the text carefully – you may need to read the text several times, and check the meaning of terms you do not understand in a dictionary. Identify and underline the key words and main ideas in the text, and write these ideas down. Consider these points as a whole and your purpose for using this information in relation to the structure of your assignment. You may be able to group the ideas under your own headings, and arrange them in a different sequence to the original text. Think about the attitude of the author, i.e. critical, supportive, certain, uncertain. Think about appropriate reporting verbs you could use to describe this attitude. Think of words or phrases which mean roughly the same as those in the original text. Remember, if the key words are specialised vocabulary for the subject, they do not need to be changed. (see Using synonyms below.) Using your notes from the abov e steps, draft your summary or paraphrase. When you have finished your draft reread the original text and compare it to your paraphrase or summary. You can then check that you have retained the meaning and attitude of the original text. Using synonyms To paraphrase a text, you can use a variety of techniques, such as synonymous words, synonymous word forms, or synonymous phrases. For example, the student text below has used synonymous word forms(scanners – scanner, use – using) (in bold), synonymous words (convert – recreates) (in bold italics), and synonymous phrases (their â€Å"eyes† – the scanner eye) (in italics). Original source scanners convert analog data into digital information†¦ scanners use small electronic components (called CCDs, PMTs, or CISs) as their â€Å"eyes†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Student text A scanner recreates an image such as a graphic using small electronic components referred to as the scanner’s eyes†¦ Changing word forms A common approach to changing the word forms in a sentence is to change the main verb into a noun, or less commonly to change the main noun into a verb. For example, compare the two sentences below: Original source Scanners convert analog data into digital information. Paraphrased sentence The conversion of an image such as a graphic by a scanner occurs†¦ Re-ordering main ideas Another way of paraphrasing is to change the order of the main ideas in a sentence. One way of doing this is to change the active voice to passive voice or the passive voice to active voice. The active voice focuses on who or what is affected by a process or event, whilst the passive voice focuses on the event or process. For example compare the use of ‘ scanners convert’ and ‘ the conversion of’ in the examples above. For further information on the use of active and passive voice see the grammar tutorial. Paraphrasing is the process of presenting another author’s content in your own words, while maintaining the meaning of the passage. It is useful when the author uses difficult-to-understand language and structure, when you want to focus on a different element of the passage or when your audiences are different (for example, the author wrote an academic paper, and you are a newspaper reporter). However, paraphrasing can also lead to plagiarism (using another author’s work or ideas as your own) if your sources are not appropriately and explicitly cited. Other People Are Reading How to Paraphrase Without Plagiarizing Types Of Paraphrases Instructions 1 Change the voice of the sentences from active to passive voice and vice versa. For example, â€Å"Educators prefer teaching lower grades† can become â€Å"Teaching lower grades is preferred by educators.† This is helpful when you want to focus more on the object rather than the subject of the sentence. 2 Change the wording of a passage using synonyms. A thesaurus can prove quite useful for this task. â€Å"Children develop their language by interacting with those around them† can become â€Å"Kids acquire language skills by communicating with people close to them.† Sponsored Links SoftLayer ® Official Site More Custom Hosting From A Trusted Source. 24Ãâ€"7 Support. Chat Now. SoftLayer.com/Asia-Pacific 3 Change the verb of the mood to subjunctive if you want to paraphrase a wish, a request or an unrealistic situation. You can also change subjunctive mood to indicative. For example, â€Å"The minister requested that his assistant bring the documents,† can become â€Å"The minister asked his assistant to bring the documents.† 4 Change the order of the sentence’s elements — without altering the mood of the verb of the voice — to stress the most important part for your work. For instance, â€Å"John Day (an imaginary person) was a successful writer, politician and businessman,† can be â€Å"John Day is famous for his success as a businessman, politician and writer.† 5 Use nicknames or colloquial terms to change a passage’s wording. You can change â€Å"New York City† to â€Å"the Big Apple,† for instance, or refer to â€Å"night shift† as the â€Å"graveyard shift.† However, this technique is not acceptable when writing a formal paper. Read more: http://www.ehow.com/how_8759404_easily-paraphrase.html#ixzz2jBcfjEac Paraphrasing correctly can prevent plagiarizing. When you paraphrase, you simply express someone else’s ideas in your own words. Unlike a brief summary, a paraphrase contains more detail, according to the Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL). Although you have reworded the original, you must use in-text citations, parentheses containing the source of the information, in the required format. Paraphrasing may involve changes in vocabulary, length, parts of speech and sentence structure. How to Write a Paraphrase How to Teach Students How to Paraphrase 1. Synonym Replacement At its simplest level, paraphrasing involves replacing original wording with synonyms. Consider this original sentence from Claudia Kalb’s â€Å"Newsweek† article, â€Å"Painkiller Crackdown,† â€Å"While the DEA says OxyContin is a ‘valuable’ drug, it is ‘concerned’ that many doctors who are prescribing the medications don’t ‘know’ enough about it and are not ‘conveying’ the dangers to patients. . . . † If a student made only these replacements — â€Å"useful† for â€Å"valuable,† â€Å"worried† for â€Å"concerned,† â€Å"know† for â€Å"understand† and â€Å"explaining† for â€Å"conveying† — some paraphrasing would result, but much of the original would remain, resulting in partial plagiarism. Reduction of Clauses Another method of paraphrasing involves changing clauses to phrases. For example, the clause, â€Å"while the DEA says OxyContin is a valuable drug† could become a more succinct phrase, â€Å"claiming Oxycontin’s value.† If a student combines this approach with synonym replacement, more effective paraphrasing occurs. Sponsored Links Download Free PC Software Download Free PC Manager Software. Easy File Transfer. Download Now ! mobogenie.com/download-pc-software Parts of Speech Changing parts of speech may assist in paraphrasing. Consider another original sentence from Kalb’s â€Å"Newsweek† article: â€Å"Last week the ‘spotlight’  on OxyContin ‘intensified’ as the Drug Enforcement Administration ‘announced’ a national strategy to ‘combat’ the painkiller’s ‘illegitimate’ use. . . .† If a student restructured the sentence, changing parts of speech, some paraphrasing would occur: â€Å"The Drug Enforcement Administration last week ‘spotlighted’ OxyContin more ‘intensely’ and made an ‘announcement’ of a national strategy, which combats using the painkiller ‘illegitimately.'† However, this paraphrasing lacks originality and again results in partial plagiarism. Change of Structure Changing the sentence structure adds to the value of the paraphrase, reflecting the writer’s interpretation of the author’s thoughts. Consider this original wording from the â€Å"Newsweek† article: â€Å"OxyContin was developed to do good: relieve debilitating pain. But since the powerful drug debuted in 1996, it has become increasingly known for a dangerous side effect — the potential for serious addiction.† By beginning with a phrase and changing the structure, a writer could create the following: â€Å"First appearing in 1996, Oxycontin claimed to relieve unnecessary suffering. Today, however, experts know it can pose an ‘addictive’ threat (Kalb 38).† These restructured sentences also include synonym replacement (â€Å"appeared† for â€Å"debuted†) and changes in parts of speech (â€Å"addictive† for â€Å"addiction†). With the Modern Language Association (MLA) in-text citation, this paraphrasing a voids any trace of plagiarism by combining multiple forms of paraphrasing. Read more: http://www.ehow.com/info_8410412_types-paraphrases.html#ixzz2jBcsVmxv How to Teach Students How to Paraphrase By Hilary Riepenhoff, eHow Contributor Share Print this article Teaching students to paraphrase takes time and practice. Paraphrasing is an essential skill for students to obtain. Without paraphrasing, students are at risk for plagiarism. It is important to lay the ground work for successful instruction of paraphrasing through explanation of key concepts, modeling and practice of the skill. Only through practice and constant feedback will a student’s paraphrasing ability grow. Activities for Paraphrasing Information Difference Between Summarizing & Paraphrasing Instructions 1. 1 Teach the key differences between retelling, summarizing and paraphrasing. Author of â€Å"Summarizing, Paraphrasing, and Retelling,† Emily Kissner suggests, the three concepts are similar, but are different in development, formation, and final product. Summaries contain main ideas, some supporting details and are in chronological order, yet shorter in length. Retelling is orally sharing information, while recalling important information from the text. According to Purdue’s Online Writing Lab, successful paraphrasing puts the information from the passage in your own words, while attributing the original source. It is shorter in length because you abbreviate the information. 2 Remind students that although paraphrased material is not in quotes, one must credit the original source. Explain that making small changes in wording, rearranging the original quote or failing to cite the source is plagiarism. Sponsored Links Download Free PC Software Download Free PC Manager Software. Easy File Transfer. Download Now ! mobogenie.com/download-pc-software 3 Indiana University of Bloomington’s Writing Tutorial Service suggests teaching several key strategies, including to rewrite using your own words while covering the quote you are paraphrasing to avoid the urge to copy; also check your paraphrased work to ensure you have not accidentally written anything word for word from the original and that the information included is correct. 4 Begin small by introducing paraphrasing with sentences instead of lengthy paragraphs. Ensure students understand information stated in each sentence. Consider a student’s ability levels in reading. 5 Model the concept of paraphrasing to students. Show students what good paraphrasing looks like. Give examples based on appropriate change in words and structure. Prepare examples and have students explain their reasoning on whether the paraphrasing is correct or not. 6 Provide students the opportunity to orally paraphrase sentences in their own words. Work as a group to recognize what works with a student’s paraphrased responses and what does not. Instant feedback guides students toward correct paraphrasing. Independent practice then evaluates student progress and growth. Read more: http://www.ehow.com/how_8783769_teach-students-paraphrase.html#ixzz2jBd4uoZv Paraphrasing and Summarizing Exercise This resource was written by Tony Cimasko. Last edited by Allen Brizee on August 7, 2009 . Summary: This resource contains the practice exercise on paraphrasing and summarizing to help you learn how to apply the guidelines in this section to your own writing. Take a look at the text below (excerpted from â€Å"Expert: Wikipedia  Won’t Go Away, So Learn How to Use It† by Maggie Morris) and the following attempts at paraphrasing and summarizing. The first four are not adequate, but the last one is. Look at each of the four inappropriate attempts, and decide what exactly makes each inappropriate. The popularity of Wikipedia makes it important that users learn to use the online collaborative encyclopedia as a starting point for their research rather than as the final word, says a Purdue University communications expert. â€Å"Students are addicted to Wikipedia, and teachers fight it with stern grading policies and restrictions on its use,† says Sorin A. Matei, an assistant professor in the Department of Communication. â€Å"But Wikipedia is here to stay and, des pite penalties, people are likely to continue using it.† Version 1: The popularity of Wikipedia makes it important that users learn to use the online collaborative encyclopedia as a starting point for their research. â€Å"Students are addicted to Wikipedia, and teachers fight it with stern grading policies and restrictions on its use,† says Sorin A. Matei, an assistant professor in the Department of Communication. Version 2: The popularity of Wikipedia makes it important that users learn to use the online collaborative encyclopedia as a starting point for their research. â€Å"Students are addicted to Wikipedia, and teachers fight it with stern grading policies and restrictions on its use,† says Sorin A. Matei, an assistant professor in the Department of Communication (Morris). Version 3: Wikipedia is popular, which makes it vital that users learn to use the online collaborative encyclopedia as a beginning point for their research. â€Å"Students are addicted to Wikipedia,† says Sorin A. Matei, an assistant professor in the Department of Communication, â€Å"and teachers fight it with stern grading policies and restrictions on its use† (Morris). Version 4: â€Å"Wikipedia is popular, which makes it necessary to learn using the online collaborative encyclopedia as a beginning point for their research. ‘Students are addicted to Wikipedia,’ says Sorin A. Matei, an assistant professor in the Department of Communication, ‘and teachers fight it with stern grading policies and restrictions on its use’† (Morris). Version 5: Sorin A. Matei of Purdue University says that because students are â€Å"addicted to Wikipedia† and will continue to rely on it, it is important for teachers to help them to use Wikipedia as a place to begin research, rather than as a final source. Matei also says that penalties are unlikely to be effective (Morris). Version 5 is correct. Here the student combined her own paraphrasing with a quotation of striking language of the original text. She made certain her words and those taken directly from the source fit together; she quoted accurately and cited her source. Some of the information is consolidated, and the specific kinds of penalties given by teachers—a minor detail—are left out. Answers for Paraphrasing and Summarizing Exercises This resource was written by Tony Cimasko. Last edited by Allen Brizee on November 5, 2008 . Summary: This resource contains the answers for the ESL exercises on paraphrasing and summarizing. Paraphrasing and Summarizing The popularity of Wikipedia makes it important that users learn to use the online collaborative encyclopedia as a starting point for their research rather than as the final word, says a Purdue University communications expert. â€Å"Students are addicted to Wikipedia, and teachers fight it with stern grading policies and restrictions on its use,† says Sorin A. Matei, an assistant professor in the Department of Communication. â€Å"But Wikipedia is here to stay and, despite penalties, people are likely to continue using it.† Version 1: The popularity of Wikipedia makes it important that users learn to use the online collaborative encyclopedia as a starting point for their research. â€Å"Students are addicted to Wikipedia, and teachers fight it with stern grading policies and restrictions on its use,† says Sorin A. Matei, an assistant professor in the Department of Communication. This version would be considered blatant plagiarism. The text is excerpted almost word for word without using quotation marks appropriately, without giving credit to the original author. Some words have been cut out, but the original author’s language is still quite obvious. Version 2: The popularity of Wikipedia makes it important that users learn to use the online collaborative encyclopedia as a starting point for their research. â€Å"Students are addicted to Wikipedia, and teachers fight it with stern grading policies and restrictions on its use,† says Sorin A. Matei, an assistant professor in the Department of Communication (Morris). Credit is given to the original author (Morris), but quotation marks are still not used, and the language still closely resembles the original writing. Version 3: Wikipedia is popular, which makes it vital that users learn to use the online collaborative encyclopedia as a beginning point for their research. â€Å"Students are addicted to Wikipedia,† says Sorin A. Matei, an assistant professor in the Department of Communication, â€Å"and teachers fight it with stern grading policies and restrictions on its use† (Morris). The original author is given credit, and technically the passage is correct, but the writer suggests that Morris’ main point is teachers’ reactions. In fact, Morris is emphasizing the importance of Wikipedia, and talks about teachers’ reactions as a secondary point. Version 4: â€Å"Wikipedia is popular, which makes it necessary to learn using the online collaborative encyclopedia as a beginning point for their research. ‘Students are addicted to Wikipedia,’ says Sorin A. Matei, an assistant professor in the Department of Communication, ‘and teachers fight it with stern grading policies and restrictions on its use’† (Morris). The quotation is essentially accurate, quotation marks are used, and Morris is given credit. The bigger problem is that the writer made no attempt to use his or her own language, to integrate the quotation into their own  words. The smaller problem is the lack of ellipses (. . .) to indicate where the writer took out part of the quotation. Version 5: Sorin A. Matei of Purdue University says that because students are â€Å"addicted to Wikipedia† and will continue to rely on it, it is important for teachers to help them to use Wikipedia as a place to begin research, rather than as a final source. Matei also says that penalties are unlikely to be effective (Morris). Version 5 is correct. Here the student combined her own paraphrasing with a quotation of striking language of the original text. She made certain her words and those taken directly from the source fit together; she quoted accurately and cited her source. Some of the information is consolidated, and the specific kinds of penalties given by teachers—a minor detail—are left out. Paraphrasing & Summarizing Exercise This is the last part of Wallace’s Copyright & Plagiarism tutorial.Please read the following passages to garner an understanding in the art of paraphrasing. More practice is available via Web links on the Student Guide to Copyright . Original passage: Nobody called him Abe–at least not to his face–because he loathed the nickname. It did not befit a respected professional who’d struggled hard to overcome the limitations of his frontier background. Frankly Lincoln enjoyed his status as a lawyer and politician, and he liked money, too, and used it to measure his worth. By the 1850’s, thanks to a combination of talent and sheer hard work, Lincoln was a man of substantial wealth. He had an annual income of around $5,000–the equivalent of many times that today–and large financial and real-estate investments. Oates, Stephen B. Our Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln, John Brown, and the Civil War Era. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1979. p. 65 Incorrect paraphrase: No one used Lincoln’s nickname, Abe, because he detested it. It didn’t go  with a lawyer and politician who had worked to get away from the restrictions of his country heritage. Lincoln liked his new position, and his wealth, and used it to gauge his status. By mid-century, his skill and labor had made him a fairly wealthy man. He had a yearly income of approximately $5,000 – equal to several times that now – and hefty business and land commitments. ** This is incorrect because it uses the same basic structure as the original with some word changes and does not credit the author. Correct paraphrase: By the middle of the century, Lincoln enjoyed life as a well-respected lawyer and politician, having acquired a position of status and wealth that was well removed from his early â€Å"frontier background†. He now was bringing in $5,000 a year (this translates to $87,500 in 1997 dollars [Derks, 2]), and had substantial â€Å"financial and real estate investments†. As a consequence, he disliked being called Abe because of its association with his rural heritage. (Oates, 65) ** This is correct because it portrays the ideas of Oates’ passage and gives Oates credit for his ideas. The writer has used his own words to present those ideas and has used quotation marks for those phrases that are from Oates. The writer has also included additional research on the value of the income and has sited the source for that as well. Correct summarization: When we think of Abraham Lincoln, the image of a wealthy lawyer is not the first that comes to mind. A man, who worked hard, struggled and came from a less than ideal background is often the picture we invoke. However, it is an incomplete portrait. Mr. Lincoln was successful both professionally and financially even by today’s standards. (Oates, 65) ** This is also correct. It summarizes Oates’ ideas completely in the writer’s own words, but gives Oates credit for the ideas. Chapter Objectives To understand and applying critical reading strategies. To develop the understanding of summary in various rhetorical modes such as narrative fiction, personal essay, and technical writing (figures and tables). To define and instruct students on the three skills of  incorporating research into their writing: summary, paraphrase, and quotation. To review models and apply concepts of summary, paraphrase, and quotation through practical applications and exercises. To understand the concept of plagiarism and learn techniques to avoid it through various examples and exercises. Although the papers you write will be your own—your own voice, your own purpose, your own thesis statement, introduction, conclusion, and topic/transition sentences—there will be times when you will want to integrate source material to help you support your assertions. Integrating sources such as information from books, newspapers, magazines, interviews or websites, is done in one of three ways: summary, paraphrase, and quotation. The purpose of this chap ter is to teach you these three basic concepts of writing, so you can incorporate research into your writing without plagiarizing. These skills are addressed first because you will need them in all college writing you produce no matter what the course subject. In fact, this process will begin with synthesis and analysis essays which appear later in this book. What is a Summary? A summary is a brief restatement, in your own words, of the content of a passage. You should focus on the central idea of the passage, and, in a condensed form, relay the passage’s main points reflecting the order in which they occur. In most situations a summary is approximately one quarter the length of the original passage. A summary will not include minor details, repeated points, or any of your own opinions and conclusions. You will use summary when you want to present the main points of a lengthy passage in order to develop or support the discussion of your essay. How to Write Summaries Read the passage carefully. In order to summarize information, you must first be able to understand it. This requires careful critical reading. Read the passage completely the first time to gain an overall understanding of the piece, as you re-read the piece, begin making margin notes that identify important points, shifts in thoughts, and questions you may have. You will also want to consider at this point what the significance of the whole piece is, what the parts of the essay that fit into the whole are, and how the points are organized to  support the whole. Finally, you will want to divide the passage into stages of thought, which you will later develop into the body paragraphs of your rough draft. A section or stage of thought in a passage is usually several paragraphs in length. You can identify these more easily by looking for transitional sentences at the beginning or end of paragraphs thatsummarize what has come before or set the stage for what is to follow. Write one-sentence summaries of each stag e of thought. Once you have identified the stages of thought in the passage, create a one-sentence summary for each stage of thought. This sentence must be in your own words, and it must illustrate your understanding of the passage. This is often the most difficult part of summary writing because you may be tempted to use the writer’s words or structure, which would be plagiarism. It is always a good idea to put the original passage aside at this point and summarize what you have read in the section using your own understanding and thinking skills. Write a thesis: a one- or two-sentence summary of the entire passage. Now look over all the sentences you have created for your stages of thought. Once again, you will work to condense information as you summarize the essence of the passage in one or two sentences, thereby creating your thesis statement for your rough draft. Another hint is to remember that the thesis will be the first sentence of the summary draft, and it includes the passageâ⠂¬â„¢s subject and the claim that the author is making about that subject. Write the first draft of your summary. At this point you are ready to draft your summary essay. Depending on whether you have been assigned to write a short summary or a longer summary, you can structure your summary in one of two ways: combine the thesis with your list of one-sentence summaries (short summary) or combine the thesis with your list of one-sentence summariesplus significant details from the passage (longer summary). Check your summary against the original passage. After completing your draft, you will want to make sure the content of your information has completely and accurately summarized the passage without plagiarizing or adding any of your own personal opinion. Now, return to the original text and compare your draft against it. Revise your summary. In revising your summary, combine sentences and insert transitions where necessary to make your summary clear and coherent. Edit for grammatical correctness. Compare the length of the summary to the original. Summaries, as general rule, should be no longer than one-fourth of the original passage, although they could be much shorter, depending on your purpose in summarizing the original. What is a Narrative? A narrative is a story, a retelling of a person’s experiences. It can be imaginary, in which the narrator is a created character (fiction), or it can be biographical (non-fiction), in which the narrator is actually the author. Note: non-fiction narratives are referred to as essays, or personal essays. Summarizing a narrative will be slightly different from summarizing an expository essay because it will most likely not have a direct thesis statement, and its stages of thought will be developed through descriptive events or time periods rather than through factual evidence or logical explanations of the subject. In summarizing a narrative, you will give a synopsis or overview of the story’s events and relate how these events affect the central character. However, the steps of reading/rereading, dividing stages of thought, writing one-sentence summaries, writing a thesis, drafting, and revising will be primarily the same. Summarizing Figures and Tables Figures and tables are in essence summaries themselves; they present a pictorial overview of material and are often used because they communicate information more clearly and quickly. Below are different types of graphic devices: Pie Charts show relative proportions or percentages. Graphs relate one variable to another. They are effective in showing trends or cause-and-effect relationships. Tables present numerical data in rows and columns for quick reference and are most effective when the writer wants to emphasize numbers, particularly when a great deal of data is being displayed. What is a Paraphrase? A paraphrase is very similar to a summary in that you use your own words to communicate to your reader what the original passage has stated; however, an important difference between the two is that the paraphrase is approximately the same length as the original rather that one quarter of its length, as a summary is. In a paraphrase, instead of only restating the writer’s main points, you will follow the progression of the writer’s ideas sentence by sentence. In other words, each sentence in the paraphrase corresponds to a sentence in the original, the main difference being, of course, you have replaced the language of the original with your own language. Paraphrasing is used most effectively when you want to present material written in language that is abstract, archaic, or highly technical, and you feel your audience will better understand the material in your words. What is a Quotation? A quotation records the exact language in a source. You should use quotations sparingly, because every quotation contains the voice of the writer who composed the text. Using too many quotes obliterates your voice and is a clear indication that you have not successfully synthesized your source material with your own writing. It is often a red flag to your audience that either you may not have completely understood the source or you have not taken the time paraphrase the information for them. Used wisely, however, quotes can add credibility and interest to your paper. When to quote Use quotations when another writer’s language is particularly memorable and will add liveliness to your paper. Use quotations when another writer’s language is so clear and economical that to make the same point in your own words would, by comparison, be ineffective. Use quotation when you want the solid reputation of a source to lend authority and credibility to your own writing. Incorporating quotations into your sentences Quotations should never stand by themselves without an attribution. Work the material into your sentence as naturally as possible, using appositives to identify the speakers or authors of the quote. Always credit your sources with an attribution in the text or in a formal citation, depending on the level of formality of your assignment. Use ellipses (three spaced periods)  to indicate that material has been omitted from the quote. If you are deleting the end of a quoted sentence, or if you are deleting entire sentences of paragraphs before continuing a quotation, add a period before the ellipsis. Use brackets whenever you need to add or substitute words in order to clarify meaning for your audience. What is Plagiarism? Plagiarism is generally defined as the attempt to pass off the work of another as one’s own. At any time in your writing if you are using the thoughts or words of another source, you must document where you read or found the information by giving credit to its author; this is done by using parenthetical citation and a works cited page which will be discussed in further detail in chapter seven. With the ease of the Internet for research and the ability to cut and paste information from websites, plagiarism can become quite tempting, especially if procrastination haunts your life and you find that your unwritten paper is due the next morning. However, most plagiarism is unintentional. Poor note taking skills and synthesizing of source material can lead you to overlook placing parenthetical citations where they are necessary. Unfortunately, most professors treat unintentional plagiarism the same as intentional plagiarism because the student is ultimately responsible for his/her o wn work. Avoiding Plagiarism You can avoid plagiarism by being aware of the follow rules of thumb and by practicing using sources appropriately. Remember summaries, paraphrases, and quotes all receive documentation because all are the thoughts or words of another person. Remember when writing summaries and paraphrases you must communicate the source information into your own words (your own language and sentence structure). Always check your summary or paraphrase against the original after writing it. If you find four words in a rowidentical between the two, then you know you have not properly summarized/paraphrased the information, and you would be guilty of plagiarism.

Internet and Philippine English Proficiency

Hazel Rose V. Corachea The internet is a computer based global information system. It is composed of many interconnected computer networks. Each network may link thousands of computers enabling them to share information. The internet has brought a transformation in many aspects of life. It is one of the biggest contributors in making the world into a global village. The use of internet has grown tremendously since it was introduced. It is mostly because of its flexibility. Nowadays, one can access the internet easily. Most people have computers in their homes but even the ones who don’t they can always go to cyber cafes where this service is provided. The internet has developed to give many benefits to mankind. The access to information is one of the most important features that it has. Students can now have access to libraries around the world. Before, students had to spend hours and hours in the libraries but now at a touch of the button students have a huge database in front of them. In the Philippines, more and more Filipinos are going online and forming their social networks. The following numbers show this reality. Philippines is sixth among all Asian countries in terms of top internet user. While, we rank in seventeenth place in the worldwide survey. InternetWorldStats says that Philippines has 29. 7 million internet users, as of June 2011. Undeniably, as the use of internet grows rapidly, English language skill also has become a necessity in order for us to establish linkages with the rest of the world. English has played a central role as the common international language in linking people who have different mother tongues. When it comes to English language proficiency, recent language test results released by the IDP Education Pty. Ltd. Philippines, an accredited group that administers the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) to Filipinos seeking to work and migrate abroad, showed that the Philippines is no longer the top English-speaking country in Asia. With an overall score of 6. 71, Malaysia is now the No. 1 in English proficiency in Asia. The Philippines placed only second with 6. 69, followed by Indonesia (5. 99), India (5. 79) and Thailand (5. 1). This was gleaned from IELTS results in 2008, during which some 35,000 Filipinos — 70 percent of them nursing graduates applying for jobs abroad — took the language exam to evaluate their English proficiency in reading, writing, speaking and listening. The group blames technology such as the internet and SMS messaging (texting) on cell phones, which favors speed and levity but fosters poor written skills. â€Å"We use abb reviations in chat rooms, and we have created a whole new language, and texting on cell phones has created a short language. †

Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 9

Case Study Example The scope of operations of Bank Solutions Inc. identifies the need for security measures but risk assessment of the company’s operational set up identifies security, interoperability, and operations issues that threaten the organization’s ability to implement DRBC plan and safeguard its data. This report analyses issue around the organization’s system, based on results from its internal report, and recommend IT security controls and government regulations and standards that can safeguard the company’s data. Scope of the company’s operations that identifies data in electronic format and the company’s outdated and untested data system identifies integrity, confidentiality, and authentication as major security issues (The United Nations, 2007). This is because the company’s outdated and untested could be inefficient in detecting and preventing possible internal threats. This also raises authenticity, repudiation, and integrity concerns due to possible arbitrary data alteration (Camara, Crossler, Midha, & Wallace, 2011). Confidentiality is also an issue because of company’s laxity in customization and implementation of disaster recovery and business continuity master plan that mean that stored data is susceptible to breach from employees who are not entitled to access and external threats. Such access can only identify malicious intention and breach of confidentiality (Chhabra, 2013) and lack of regulation on data access suggests this. Operational issues are also evident in the case and implementation of Information Technology governance is an example. Effective governance offers leadership for availability and implementation of necessary frameworks for operations and security of a system (Grajek & Pirani, 2012). Assessment results suggest lack of such governance, leading to application of an outdated and untested system. Identified failure by some facilities to customize and implement DRBC plans also shows lack of effective governance

Why do women commit fewer crimes than men Essay

Why do women commit fewer crimes than men - Essay Example Unfortunately all these arguments do not clearly explain why there more occurrences of crime among men than women (Campbell, Muncer and Bibel, 2001, p. 481). Recent studies have indicated that the ratio of crime between men and women is approximately 3 to 1 respectively. The following discussions present the most likely factors attributed to this trend associated with our societies. According to Currie (2007, p. 175) societies socialize male individuals to assume aggressive characteristics as a survival strategy. Society expects men to be strong so as to stand up for their rights whenever need arises. Furthermore a man was given the sole responsibility of providing security for his family. Due to the high expectations on man by society, men sometimes tend to prove their strength by engaging in crime. A man who cannot stand up for his rights is considered to be a weakling and such man may be denied respect in society (Lauritsen, Karen & James (2009.p. 368). Consequently men opt do anything at their disposal even using violent means to show how strong they are. Campbell, Muncer & Bibel (2001, p. 484) contends that on the other hand, women are considered to be the weaker sex by society and a woman who commits in crime is seen to deviate from the nature of society. Society describes a normal woman to be loving, patient, caring and understanding. A criminal woman is not fit for marriage according to society because it considers her to lack the actual traits of a mother. A mother will always be there for her family and no criminal activity can ever cross her mind. From the societies’ expectations of women, women restrict themselves from committing crime (Currie, 2007. P179). However this does not mean that women do not commit crime, they commit crime but at a very low rate compared to that of men. In addition, the way society distributes gender roles also restrict women from committing crime. Women are always within their families trying to care for

Discussion Board Post Response Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 22

Discussion Board Post Response - Essay Example Conversely, I concur that a process map shows how each of the processes affect each other. In other words, it shows different outcomes that could result from a specific process. For instance, after initial examination, a patient can either proceed to the discharge room or can proceed to the laboratory for tests. Your elucidation that process mapping is the use of diagramming to understand the process currently used and display what is expected of each individual involved (Cookson et-al, 2011) is spot on. I concur that through process mapping, workable standards can be identified and adopted and also courses of action implemented to help improve on non-workable standards in order to arrive at better outcomes. However, I feel that you could have used an example of a problem necessitating improvement in healthcare in your process map. In my process map for instance, I have used an example showing how patients move across the clinic from the time of checking in to the time of discharge. In such an example, areas that need improvement can clearly be noted. Cookson, D., Read, C., Mukherjee, P., & Cooke, M. (2011). Improving the quality of emergency department care by removing waste using Lean Value Stream mapping. International Journal of Clinical Leadership, 17(1),

Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 80

Assignment - Essay Example The disease is also causes fever, and red skin-spots that later turn black, thus the name â€Å"Black Death†. The disease reached Europe through The Black Sea in October 1347 when 12 Genoese trade ships arrived at Messina’s Sicilian port. The Genoese ships’ passengers on board were already plague-infected. The strategic location of China as one of the world’s significant trading nations facilitated the spread of the Black Death into Europe and Western Asia. The Black Death rapidly spread in â€Å"Europe from Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, England, Germany, Scandinavia, Norway, Bergen, Iceland, to northwestern Russia.†3 The medieval society was tremendously influenced by the Black Death. To begin with, there was starvation in the villages because the laborers died. The men who were supposed to plough fields died. The lack of labor also affected the harvesting, and livestock farming. In the urban areas, the effects of the Black Death were directly proportional to the impacts in the rural areas. A number of people migrated from the urban areas to the rural areas because it was believed that the fleas causing the Black Death was common in the urban areas. The urban areas suffered lack of food because the primary suppliers of food, who were the surrounding villages, could not supply adequate food. The loss of labor through deaths led to the lords resorting to sheep farming, as opposed to earlier grain farming. There was also shortage of commodities like bread because of the decline in grain farming. The prices of food in the urban areas skyrocketed because of the inflation. The inflation resulted into workers demanding for better pay, leading to the 1381’s Peasants Revolt in Europe when the landlords were hesitant to heed to the peasants’ demands.4 There were huge disruptions in the medieval world because of the Black Death. The Black Death led to the establishment of Feudal law restricting the movement of peasants, unless authorized by

Management accounting and control (s-12 -1-4)) Coursework

Management accounting and control (s-12 -1-4)) - Coursework Example In this control model, there are several actions that ought to be subjected to control as argued by Otley and Berry (1980). In their argument, the authors point out four conditions of control. i. Existence of clear organisation’s objectives ii. The outputs of the budgetary process should be measurable iii. The effect of the control actions must be predictable iv. The organisation should be able to implement a corrective action throughout the budgetary process. Existence of clear organisation’s objectives Management of public and large private organisations is sometime hard to attain the desired ends. Activities and various operations should be monitored closely and action should be taken in order to achieve the intended objectives. Objectives drive an organisation in pursuing any activity. It dictates what ought to be done at specific period of time. An organisation has objectives and subsidiary objectives that influence its course of actions. Setting clear objectives i s one of the functions of modern management both in private and public sector. Measurement of goal attainment both financially and in terms of meeting demands of stakeholders is paramount. The issue of goal attainment cannot be achieved without confronting the issue of organisation’s effectiveness and efficiency, which means have direct effect on organisation’s budget (Bunce et al., 1995). The extent to which clear objectives apply in the context of budgeting As suggested by Otley and Berry (1980), objectives for budgetary process under control must exist; otherwise without them the control process is meaningless to the organisation. Well defined objectives compel an organisation to work without certain resource and time constraints. Most organisations around the world defined their objectives which ought to be achieved within budgeted resources. The objectives act a guide to the utilization of the existing resources as reflected in the budget. The authors further sugg est that the budgeting control process is influenced directly by the objectives to be attained during a specified period of time. It is demeaning for organisation to spend its resources on unbudgeted things since it will undermine the attainment of well defined objectives. Without objectives, the budgeting process will be aimless hence the entire concept of budgetary control becomes inappropriate. As the business operations progresses, an organisation continually monitors the world around and compares its current state with its objectives. Is the organisation in the correct route in respect to its budgeting process? Is its spending within the appropriate budget limit? Is the organisation avoiding resource strain? The objectives helps an organisation makes a budgetary observations by the use of measurable aspects of budget. The outputs of the budgetary process should be measurable Most literature advocate for adoption of performance based budgeting (PBP) as a primary way of attaining efficiency in the management of public resources. The sole aim of this concept is to link performance information with effective management and allocation of public or organisational resources. It emphasizes the significance of singling out measurable outcomes and effectively allocating resources to facilitate the realization of these outcomes. According to Otley

McDonald's Marketing Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

McDonald's Marketing Plan - Essay Example The researcher states that political factors are usually beyond the control of the organization. A business needs to prepare for the changes that might occur and take the necessary action required to remedy the situation. For example, some parts of the Middle East are unstable and McDonald being from Britain should be careful of what they say since it could hurt their business. Economic factors can affect the performance of the business. For example, the recent economic recession that led to the closure of multiple businesses and the laying off countless personnel. McDonald should put measures in place to shield itself from any future problems that might occur. Social factors can relate to the cultures, values, and beliefs of the society. It consists of the population’s demographics, which include size, gender, ethnicity, and education. It helps McDonald target their business services and products. McDonald Company embodies a broad spectrum of services, so it allows useful inf ormation to them. Developments in the technology world can affect business performance in both negative and positive ways. For example, the internet and consumer behaviors have changed towards the internet; this has negatively affected McDonald because there has been as a decrease in sales in their book section. It is because e-commerce has taken business away. However, the launch of online shopping has enabled McDonald`s to expand rapidly since all their products in one place, and it has become easy to navigate. It will be beneficial to McDonald`s because people in Europe love to shop, and a one-stop shop will be a crowd puller.

Osmosis and Diffusion Essay Example for Free

Osmosis and Diffusion Essay The basic principles of Osmosis and Diffusion were tested and examined in this lab. We examined the percent increase of mass and molarity of different concentrations of sucrose in the dialysis bag emerged in distilled water and the potato cores emerged in concentrations of sucrose. The data reinforces the principles of Osmosis and Diffusion, and in a biological context, we can simulate how water and particles move in and out of our own cells. Introduction Objective: 1. Investigate the process of osmosis and diffusion in a model of a membrane system. 2. Investigate the effect of solute concentration on water potential as it relates to living plant tissue. Background Information: Molecules are in constant motion; they tend to move from areas of high concentration, to areas of low concentration. This broad principle is divided into two categories: diffusion and osmosis. Diffusion is the random movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. This is considered a passive form of transportation because it does not require any additional energy to transport the molecules. In the body, carbon dioxide and oxygen can diffuse across cell membranes. Osmosis is a special type of diffusion where water moves through a selectively permeable membrane from a region of higher water potential to a region of lower water potential. In our body, water diffuses across cell membranes through osmosis. Water potential is the measure of free energy of water in a solution and is shown with the use of the symbol ÃŽ ¨. Water potential is affected by two factors: osmotic potential (ÃŽ ¨Ãâ‚¬) and pressure potential (ÃŽ ¨p). Osmotic potential is dependent on the solute concentration, and pressure potential which is the energy that forms from exertion of pressure either positive or negative on a solution. The equation to find the sum of water potential is: Water Potential = Pressure Potential + Osmotic Potential ÃŽ ¨w = ÃŽ ¨p + ÃŽ ¨Ãâ‚¬ The purpose of this lab is to observe the physical effects of osmosis and diffusion and to determine if it actually takes place. We hypothesize that, because molecules diffuse down a concentration gradient, the mass of the dialysis tubes will increase, and we believe that as the molarity increases, the percent of change in mass will also increase. Hypothesis: Diffusion and osmosis will occur until dynamic equilibrium is reached. As the sucrose concentration of the solution increases so will the mass. Materials Exercise 1: 1. 6 strips of dialysis tubing 2. Distilled water 15-20ml 3. 0.4 M sucrose 15-20ml 4. 0.8 M sucrose 15-20ml 5. 0.2 M sucrose 15-20ml 6. 0.6 M sucrose 15-20ml 7. 1.0 M sucrose 15-20ml 8. 6 Beakers Exercise 2: 1. 100ml of distilled water 2. 100ml of 0.4 M sucrose 3. 100ml of 0.8 M sucrose 4. 100ml of 0.2 M sucrose 5. 100ml of 0.6 M sucrose 6. 100ml of 1.0 M sucrose 7. 6 Beakers 8. Potato slices (4 for each solution) 9. Scale 10. Plastic wrap 11. Thermometer Methods Exercise 1: 1. Obtain 6 strips of dialysis tubing and tie a knot in one end of each. 2. Pour approximately 15-20ml of each of the following solutions into separate bags. 3. Remove most of the air from the bag and tie the baggie. 4. Rinse the baggie carefully in distilled water to remove any sucrose that may have spilled and carefully blot. 5. Record the mass of each baggie and record. 6. Fill six 250ml beakers 2/3 full with distilled water and place a bag in each of them. Make sure that you record which baggie is which. 7. Let the bag sit for 20-30 minutes. 8. After 20-30 minutes, remove baggies from the water, and carefully blot dry. 9. Measure the mass of each baggie and record. Exercise 2: 1. Pour 100ml of your assigned solution into a beaker. Slice a potato into 4 equal lengths about the shape of French fries or tubes. 2. Determine the mass of the 4 potato cylinders together and record. 3. Place the cylinders into the beaker with your assigned solutions and cover with plastic wrap. Leave overnight. 4. Remove the cylinders from the beakers and carefully dry them. Record the room temperature in Celsius. 5. Determine the mass of the 4 potato cylinders together and record. From these results, it can be concluded that the hypothesis is justified and correct. The data shows that the mass increased as the concentration of the sucrose solution increased. Osmosis is clearly being replicated in the physical form. Analysis Change in mass depends on the concentration of sucrose within the dialysis bags. If the concentration of sucrose is greater inside the bag than outside, then water will move into the bag. If the concentration of sucrose is lower inside the bag than outside, then water will move out of the bag. These two things are directly proportional. As the mass increases, so does the molarity. These are inversely proportional because whenever the sucrose molarity inside the bag is more concentrated, it will become more dilute and vise versa. The solutions will reach equilibrium somewhere between the two concentrations. The hypothesis is accepted based on the data that was obtained because as the sucrose concentration increased so did the final mass of the solutions. One possible source of error could be the tightness of the string that tied off the dialysis tubing. If there was a leak or a break in the dialysis tubing, all of the data would be off. Another possible source of error could be that the students did not pat dry the potato sample well enough causing drops to be left on the electronic balance, tarring it incorrectly, causing all other data to be off slightly. Simple mathematical errors always occur, so there is always room for simple algebraic mistakes in this section of the lab. Conclusion The purpose of this lab was to describe the physical mechanism of osmosis and diffusion and describe how molar concentration affects diffusion. We have  now observed how solutions diffuse in different situations, always from a high concentration to a low concentration, and how molar concentration affect diffusion, as the molarity goes up, more solution is diffused. We hypothesized that because molecules diffuse down a concentration gradient, the mass of the dialysis tubes will increase, and also that as the molarity increases, the percent of change in mass will also increase. Our data did support our conclusion. Exercise 1 proved that water moves across the selectively permeable membrane of the dialysis tubing much easier than sucrose sugar does. The water moved to reach equilibrium between the solutions. Sucrose must be too large a molecule to pass through the membrane quickly. Exercise 2 showed that the potato samples took in water when immersed in a distilled water solution. Potatoes must contain sucrose molecules due to the conclusion of this lab because the potatoes take in water in the distilled water beaker. Potatoes had a lower water potential and higher solute potential than the distilled water. It is just the opposite inside the beaker. Works Cited â€Å"PHSchool – The Biology Place.† Prentice Hall Bridge Page. Pearson Education, June 2007. Web. 12 Sept.2011. Moulton, Glen E. â€Å"Cell Theory, Form, and Function: Fluid Mosaic Model of Membrane Structure and Function — Infoplease.com.† Infoplease: Encyclopedia, Almanac, Atlas, Biographies, Dictionary, Thesaurus. Free Online Reference, Research Homework Help. — Infoplease.com. Web. 14 Sept. 2011. http://www.infoplease.com/cig/biology/fluid-mosaic Bowen, R. (2000, July 2). Osmosis. Retrieved February 14, 2009, from http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/cmb/cells/pmemb/osmosis.html Sheppard, T. (2004). Diffusion and Osmosis. Retrieved February 14, 2009, from http://www.blobs.org/science/article.php?article=20 Campbell, N. A., Reece, J. B. (2005). Biology (7th ed.). New York: Pearson Education Inc.

Struggling for their lives Essay Example for Free

Struggling for their lives Essay Having read Mairs’ â€Å"On Being a Cripple,† it can be noted that Bogan’s epigraph is found to be perfectly appropriate. It is plain that the epigraph introduces the possibility of an escape from an implied predicament, which in this narrative, happens to be the author’s condition which she openly acknowledges as she writes â€Å"I am a cripple. I choose this word to name me† (Mairs, 159). However, it remains as a mere idea, something to be entertained. The first statement which defines that freedom from a burden can easily be devised. The confinement or the burden may be clear-cut and tangible as the author’s physical disability; the escape, however, can come in the form of a cure, an outlook, or geographical relocation. Initially, this reader is given to think that perhaps the easiest escape is to run away from everything and wish fervently that an intangible confinement will not follow you, to shed problems by simply changing the address. That’s understandably a very basic, human preconception. It sometimes works. But more often than it does, it may be best to stay dismal, especially if what you are running from is a condition or an issue unbound by territory. It could also mean withdrawing from people you see everyday, shutting out family, your spouse, as a defense mechanism to avoid being hurt as recounted by Mairs: Most twenty-two- and nineteen-year-olds, like George and me, can vow in clear conscience, after a childhood of chicken pox and summer colds, to keep one another in sickness and in health so long as they both shall live. Not many are equipped for catastrophe: the dismay, the depression, the extra work, the boredom that a degenerative disease can insinuate into a relationship. And our society, with its emphasis on fun and its association of fun with physical performance, offers little encouragement for a whole spouse to stay with a crippled partner. (p. 163) Another type of escape that is next entertained is any meansof cure. As Mairs complains on page 164, â€Å"because I hate being crippled, I sometimes hate myself for being a cripple. † This being the case, it is not uncommon for people to go to great lengths only to be disappointed. We are led to believe that this is a way for us to escape just the same – escape death, that is. For most people, it is nothing to spend a fortune just to have a family remain a vegetable until the end. That kind of escape is nothing compared to the atrocity of dying! And there are few who would even consider â€Å"death as more an escape† – from pain, humilitation, wasting away without event (Mairs, 166). It appears that anything is so much better than the current situation, and the cost of an escape is miniscule. As often is the case, a change of outlook is usually opted as the last resort, without knowing that it is by far the most enlightening solution that can even defy location and medicine. This reader would definitely agree that a positive outlook – and a good sense of humor – is the best escape, if it could ever be considered as one. On the contrary, it is more a resignation from the aggressive attempts at escaping. On one’s sense of humor, Mairs remarks that it is â€Å"the easiest to lose and the hardest to survive without† (Mairs, 160). That may be, but it can also be easily revived once we stop feeling sorry for ourselves. Once we free ourselves by taking stock of what we still have instead of grumbling about our losses, it will begin to dawn that it is searching and spending nothing on an escape actually is nothing compared to letting go of the burden. As Mairs writes, Months and even years went by without catastrophe, and really I was awfully busy. And I hadnt the time, let alone the inclination, to devote myself to being a disease. (p. 167) Finally, the epigraph drives the nail home about how the author approached the conflict of her narrative, which is centrally based on experience. It provides the reader a hunch as to how a solution or a particular transition can be offered and accepted and finally be applied. As Mairs writes her response to â€Å"the cosmic deal† beautifully, she declares that â€Å"I might as well do the job myself. Now that Im getting the hang of it† (Mairs, 168). It is a fine denuoement, which marks a closure defined by a wonderful sense of being. Work Cited Mairs, Nancy. â€Å"On being a cripple. † The Search for Self and Personal Values.

Languages Are Constantly Changing English Language Essay

Languages Are Constantly Changing English Language Essay Languages are changing as the world is constantly changing. After the Second World War, English neologisms emerged in a remarkable way. New vocabulary came into existence due to new technologies and new discoveries such as ; computing, internet , cell phones and the like. Peoples daily activities like dancing, looking and many others, renewed their popularity giving birth to new lexicon. In deed, new words are invented rapidly and are developed quickly thanks to mass communication. They appear and fall into disuse when they have served their momentary purpose ( Bernhart 54).Only a few of them will get recorded in glossaries of neologisms of general dictionaries. The matter of neologism becomes a new hot spot of research owing to its practical and prevailing use in reality. The study of neologisms evoked a whole cluster of questions: -What are the reasons beyond the rise of new lexicon? -Why are some new words just a flash in a pan? -Why are other words successful? -What are the qualities that make a word successful? -Are Neologisms markers of changes in societies? Chapter 01:Literature Review 1.Definition of a Neologism The term neologism originates from Greek: neos means new, logos means word, i. e. a neologism is literally a new word. Neologism is the creation of a new lexical item as a response to changed circumstances in the external world, which achieves some currency within a speech community(qtd. in Chrystal 1992: 264) at a particular time. In linguistics, a neologism is a recently-coined word, or the act of inventing a word or phrase. Additionally it can imply the use of old words in a new sense (i.e., giving new meanings to existing words or phrases). Neologisms are especially useful in identifying new inventions, new phenomena, or old ideas which have taken on a new cultural context. The word neologism was coined around 1800 and was, at that time, a neologism itself. A person who develops a neologism is sometimes called a neologist; neology is the act of introducing a new word into a language. l. 2. Background of English Neologisms The famous American new word expert John Algeo wrote in the preface of his book Fifty Years Among the New Words, Although the dictionary of new word is warmly welcomed by readers only in recent years, actually the compiling of English dictionary began with the collection of new word ever since 1604. The early English dictionaries like Table Alphabeticall (1604, Robert Cawdrey), English Expositor (1616, John Bullokar), and The English Dictionarie (1623, Henry Cockeram) all embodied some hard words, which were absolutely new words to people in those days. Thus, those dictionaries somehow held the characteristics of neologism dictionary. However, the scientific and systematic study of neologism began at 200 years later, the 20th century. In 1902, Leon Mead published a book named Word-Coinage, being an Inquiry into Recent Neologisms, also a Brief Study of Literary Style, Slang, and Provincialisms, which said to be the first book studying neologism in the 20th. Although it was not a neologism dictionary, it contained some articles about new words. Whats more, Mead put forward the idea of making research on new words for the first time in the history. He also provided lots of examples of new words created by some American writers at that time. In 1920, C.Alphonso Smith, the dean of the English department of American Navy Institute wrote a book entitled New Words Self-defined, in which 420 new words were illustrated by examples. This had proved to be a big progress in the research on the neologisms. From 1937 to 1940, the famous American scholar Dwight Bolinger first applied newspapers and magazines to introduce new word. He created a column, The Living Language, in the newspaper, Words. In 1943, the column was brought into American speech and the title was changed into Among the New Words. Then, in the next year,Professor I. Willis Russell took the place of Bolinger and became the chief-editor of the column. He wrote articles entitled Words and Meanings, New, to introduce new words and their new meanings. War is said to be the major cradle for the born of new words. Majorie Taylor, a librarian in New York, collected numerous neologisms created during the World War II. In 1944, Taylor compiled a word-list, The Language of World War II: Abbreviation, captions, Quotations, Slogans, Titles and Other Terms and Phrases, in which every new word was explained. Similarly, Clarence Barnhart published his Dictionary of U.S. Army Terms. At that time, some academic magazines also published articles to introduce new words. Many neologism dictionaries in the 1950s are very popular, especially the Dictionary of New Words in English compiled by Paul Charles Berg in 1953 and The Dictionary of New Words by Mary Reifer in 1955. During 1950s, Mr. Paul Charles Berg did a lot of job to collect new words about the war, which brought us his Dictionary of New Words in English in 1953. After the World War II, science and technology development had greatly influenced the society. Subsequently, a lot of scientific and technical words were flooding into the language field. A lot of neologism dictionaries about words in those fields were published. Two of them are mostly welcomed: An Explaining and Pronouncing Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Words by W. E. Flood Michael West and Words of Sciences and the History Blind Them by Isaac Asimov. From 1970s on, the study of English neologism drew great attention from western scholars, many of them established special column to introduce new words in English, such as William Safire who was well known for his On Language in New York Times weekly and Anne H. Soukhanow who was the chief-editor of Word Watch. In Safires column, he provided a considerably clear explanation of new words by citing typical examples, exploring their origins and performing their current usage. Besides, the American Dialect Association Dispatches introduced some new words yearly to the public. For instance, in 1994, information superhighway was rewarded as the newest word; cybersex was the most surprising word and mosaic culture the most unnecessary word. The digital revolution in 1990s is the radical reshaping and restructuring of social patterns. Because of the wild spread of internet, America is speaking a whole new language, said Shawn Holley in his The New Word Revolution. Lots of neologisms that have a historical significance by reason of the influence they exerted on the language field are brought into existence. According to the statistics, more than 20 neologism dictionaries have been compiled, among which some put emphasis on the academic field and some are distinctive by their popularity. Oxford English Dictionary, Websters Third New International Dictionary and Barhart Dictionary of New English are the ones with the highest academic value. New words are numerous. Sometimes it seems as if a new word has about as much chance of developing into a permanent addition to our vocabulary. Only few of them will remain as serious candidates for the dictionary. Books especially about new words are abundant. However, only a few scholars have ventured to propose factors that make for the success of new words. One is Goran Kjellmer, whose article Potential Words in the journal Word for August 2000 also reviews previous proposals. The other is the executive secretary of American Dialect Society, Allan Metcalf who proposed the FUDGE scale. The two reached different conclusions. Along with books and periodicals, there is the Internet. In particular, it makes my extensive searches for examples of how words are actually used today possible. Here the author has searched thousands of pages indexed by Google.com countless times to find current uses of words under discussion. A jump of several decades has showed us more researches on the neologisms. Language reflects our life, and the research on the neologisms has never been stopped. By collecting new words or phrases occurring in languages, the previous researches have provided precious materials for the further exploration in this field. Therefore, a careful look at the research background of neologisms carries an essential academic significance. In china, the study of neologism began from 1980s. Most of the specific works and papers are mere introduction of theories from abroad lacking of much original study. To keep up with the latest English vocabulary is really difficult, thus a thorough and systematic analysis about English new words is of practical significance both in learning and teaching of English as a foreign language. Chapter 02: Factors for the Rise of English Neologisms It is not language change itself that has occupied the attention of historical linguists for the past decades, but the causes and the processes of change. Early researchers, such as Saussure (1922) or Bloomfield (1933), for instance, maintained that the causes of linguistic change cannot be established despite numerous attempts at feasible explanations (Wardhaugh,1990:187). The majority of the early researchers have maintained also that the actual processes of change cannot be observed that what one can observe and perhaps analyses are the consequences of change. The findings of later research, however, envisage the process of change as an initial fluctuation between the new and the old, with the completion of the process occurring when the new replaces the old (Fromkin et al.,1996:295). In other words, if the new form, be it phonological, morpho-syntactic, lexical or semantic, spreads the change is in progress, if it eventually replaces the old form, the change has become a fait ac compli it has gone to completion(Holmes,1992:212). In regard to the causes of change, although the reasons for an aspect of a language undergoing change at a particular point in time still remain unclear, a number of theories have been proposed, depending on the orientation of individual researchers. For instance, Mcmahon M.S (1994: 179-182) discussing causes of semantic change, delineates the following: Linguistic causes Historical causes (subdivided into ideas and scientific concepts) Social causes Psychological causes (subdivided into emotive factors and taboo) Foreign influence The need for a new name Quite a lot of reasons are responsible for the creating of English neologisms. Any new thing or new concept, which takes place in our society, may provide a foundation for the creating of the new words. In the following, four of the major reasons will be emphasized: 1) the rise of new concepts and new ideas in social culture; 2) new discoveries in science and technology; 3) the manufacture of new products in economy, and 4) the events in the field of politics. Accompanied by a series of neologisms, we can have a clearer understanding of the current English neologisms. 2.1. Sociolcultural Changes: 2.1.1. New Concepts and ideas in Social Culture. The improving living condition and the enhancing cultural standard have formed a solid basis on which a large number of new things find their occurrence. It is not necessary to demonstrate that with the development of social culture, new concepts and ideas are introduced into us constantly. Since there are many more concepts than there are existing words, there will always be new words created. Changes in social outlook and manners of behavior call for new terms such as beatnik, peacenik, and hippie. Even new culinary arrangements demand new labels and in English they have some forth in the form of cheeseburger, chiliburger, mushroomburger, etc. (Anderson, 1973) Brian Foster presents us a striking example of how fast English vocabulary changes. In the year 1914, a young girl named Monica Baldwin entered a convent, remaining secluded there until 1941. When she returned to the outer world, she found herself in a totally different world: the conditions of everyday life altered by technical developments and social changes were beyond recognition. Whats more puzzling to her was the language people speaking. During a railway journey, the term luggage in advance meant nothing to her. Reading the daily newspapers made her feel idiotic in the extreme, because words like jazz, Gin, Hollywood, Cool, noshing and Isolationism were completely incomprehensible to her. Not to mention how bewildered she was at hearing friends say, Its your funeral or believe it or not. (Brian Foster, 1981) Lets look at another example moonlighting. It was anything but new to the vocabulary, and it gained a brand new meaning in 1957 as the verb to moonlight and its related noun, moonlighting. Time magazine, beamed moonlighting at its readers in its issue of July 22nd, 1957. According to Time, it was in fact not just a new name, but a new trend and a new concern. MOON-LIGHTING, proclaimed the headline: A Problem Born of Prosperity. As a noun, moonlight goes back with the moon itself to the beginning of the English language and even earlier to the Germanic and Indo-European ancestors of English. Presumably ever since humans could speak, they have talked about the light of the moon. As a verb, to moonlight is more recent, but it still goes back to the nineteenth century. From the start it has meant doing something by the light of the moon, but at first this was something that could get one arrested. In the nineteenth century, moonlight was a slang term for the activity of burglars, who benefited from moonlight at their work. In the twentieth century, it was also used for herding cattle and hunting deer by moonlight. Whether it was the illegal work that in 1957 caused the transmutation of moonlight into a standard term for legal work, or whether this new meaning was independently derived from the original moonlight, nobody knows. And it doesnt matter much. Either way, moonlight meaning the light of the moon easily took on its second meaning of to work a second job, and Americans have been moonlighting ever since. This second meaning seems likely to stay in the vocabulary, as long as people continue to hold down second jobs. 2.1.2.Disguising Language, Misnomers While taboo words are words that have been banned by the speech community, misnomers are words that individuals have decided to coin in order to deceive the hearer by disguising unpleasant concepts. Examples: E. friendly fire instead of bombardment by own troops. 2.1.3.Prestige, Fashion Lexical change may be based on the prestige of another language or another variety of the same language, certain fashionable word-formation patterns or certain fashionable semasiological centers of expansion. The kernel of this force is mostly found outside of language. It is often the prestige of a culture, the superiority of a group or politics which cause speakers to adopt linguistic elements (words, morphemes, morphs, sounds) from the prestigious groups speech. Example: English, for instance, borrowed heavily from French during the ME. period because the upper social classes were made up of French people: garment, flower, rose, face, prince, hour, question, dance, fork, royal, loyal, fine, zero are all Gallicisms. Today, English is now the most prestigious language for many parts of the world. 2.1.4.Social, or Demographic, Reasons By social, or demographic, reasons we shall refer to the contact between different social groups. This contact may easily, and rather subconsciously, trigger off lexical change- the more intensive the social contact is, the more intensive the linguistic exchange. Example: In the history of the English language, the two prominent instances of exchanges between two social groups were the one with the Vikings in the 8th to 11th centuries and the one with the French in the 11th to 15th centuries. The force of direct contact between different speech communities must not be mixed up with the prestige force, where no direct contact with the other speech community is necessary. Thus, we can say that the early French loans (from Northern French) rather go back to the everyday contact with the English population and the French soldiers, not so early French loans (from Parisian French) go back to the prestige of the French aristocracy, the French loans in the official bilingual phase of Englands history may either go back to prestige or to the social contact or to both. Examples: The inherited ey is replaced by Scandinavian egg, the inherited nimen is replaced by Scandinavian taken except for theform benumb, throwen is supplemented by Scandinavian casten; early French loans are army, carpenter, catch. 2.1.5.Culture-Induced Salience of a Concept (Cultural Salience) Sometimes concepts are not salient to humans because of gerenal human nature, but because of the concepts cultural values. Their salience can change with the change of culture. Example: The increased importance of arts and fashion has affected the lexical treatment of the conceptual field of colors: from a vague differentiation between dark blue and light blue to a neat distinction between cobalt blue, royal blue, indigo etc. (such neat detailed differentiations often originate in expert slang and then penetrate the language of the general speech community). Conceptual fields which have gained salience through cultural importance may very well serve as designations in other conceptual field in the form of metaphors. Example: In the US, a lot of metaphors in general language have been taken from the field of baseball, e.g. to be off base to be completely wrong, to hit a home run to be highly successful and from the field of entrepreneurship. 2.1.6.Word-Play The category of word play includes humor, irony and puns. Although word-play often goes hand in hand with other factors (such as taboo, prestige or anthropological salience), it can also trigger lexical change on its own. Example: ModE. perfect lady prostitute, to take French leave to leave secretly (without paying), to cool look ( 2.2 New discoveries and Products In Science and Technology Suppose youre advancing the cause of science rather than pitching a product, and you have something new to report-a new element, a new compound, or a new species. How does it get a name? No new science is possible without neologisms, new words or new interpretations of old words to describe and explain reality in new ways. How could Aristotle have developed the logic of syllogisms or Newton thetheory of dynamics without new vocabularies and definitions? They were neologists, and everybody wanting to contribute new knowledge must be. For new knowledge there is no way around the creation of new terms and concepts. For new objects and new inventions, scientific discoveries, technical theories, etc, the new name is usually the work of one man or of a very few. To reject neologisms, often despicably, is to reject scientific development. No sign of scientific conservatism is so telling as the rejection of all but the established concepts of a school of thought. Neologisms are, however, relative to the terminological paradigm actually dominating a field of knowledge. It may be a radical renewal to introduce terms from a tradition believed to be outmoded. Nowadays the idea of the technical highway has been very familiar to people. Development in the science and technology has brought tremendous energy to the improvement of our civilization. And these achievements also find their reflections in language. Technical advancements in a society demand new designator terms, many of which can be found in linguistics such as hypercorrection, phoneme, allomorph, etc. The progress of science and technology gives occasion for the large majority of new words; for a new thing we must have a new name; hence, for instance, motor, argon, and appendicitis. It is interesting to see that the last word did not exist, or was at least too obscure to be recorded, when the Oxford Dictionary began to come out in 1888; but we cannot do without it now. Take the word software for example, that computer term was invented by John W. Tukey, a statistician at Princeton University. As long ago as 1958, he used the word in the American Mathematical Monthly. Today the software comprising the carefully planned interpretive routines, compilers, and other aspects of automotive programming are at least as important to the modern electronic calculator as its hardware of tubes, transistors, wires, tapes and the like. Tukey was already known for inventing another now- famous computer term. In 1946 he used the little word bit as the designation for a unit of information, a binary digit with value 0 or 1. That led a decade later to bytes (groups of bits, now always eight, a term invented by Werner Buchholz at IBM) and to todays kilo-, mega; and tera-bytes of computer storage and information. 2.3 The Manufacture of New Products in Economy Economic development is the mainstream of our era. The improvement of language, to a certain extent, benefits a lot from the new phenomenon that occurs in the economic field. In this competitive world, any innovation or fresh things taking place in economy will soon find their voice in the language. If theres anything a new product needs, its a brand name. To the extent that the product succeeds, the name will too. Its a sure thing, the one way to guarantee that a new term will be a success: spend mighty amounts of money on marketing persuade people to buy and keep on buying a product, and they will call it by the name you give it. When you want a product, a company would like you to think of its brand name. The Coca-Cola Company wants people to think of a Coke when they want a soft drink. But if the marketing is successful enough and the name Coke is embedded in peoples vocabulary, people will ask for a Coke and be satisfied if they get a Pepsi. In fact, in the southeastern United States, home of Coca-Cola, Coke is such a successful brand that many people there (and in the rest of the country) refer to any soft drink as a coke. Some brand names even joined the pack of the general vocabulary. Here are some of them: à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Aspirin: a name for acetylsalicylic acid, trademarked by the Bayer Company of Germany at the start of the twentieth century. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Elevator and escalator: both originally trademarks of the Otis Elevator Company. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Zipper: a name given to a separable fastener by the B.F. Goodrich Company many years after it was invented. The new name helped the zipper attain popularity in the 1930s. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Loafer: for a moccasin-like shoe. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Cellophane: for a transparent wrap made of cellulose. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Granola: a trademark registered in 1886 by W K. Kellogg, now used for a natural kind of breakfast cereal. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Ping-pong: for table tennis, a trademark registered by Parker Brothers in 1901. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Xerox: for photocopier. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Kleenex: for facial tissue. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Band-Aid: for adhesive bandage. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Tupperware: for storage container. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Scotch tape: for transparent adhesive tape. à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ã‚ ºÃ¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Jazzercise: for exercise to jazz music. 2.4. The Events in the Field of Politics. The forming of English new words is sometimes considered as the result of the political changes. Language reflects the society, as it has always been. Politics is an essential part of the development of the world; therefore, it can easily find its relative neologisms in the language field. For instance, when Mr. Bill Clinton was elected as the president of the US., his name has been associated with many political words. His policy is Clintonian, he is carrying out the Clintionism, his economics policy is Clintonomics, and his supporters were called Clintonites, he ultimately wanted to realize his Clintonization. Another widespread usage of affixes is -gate, which came from the historical Watergate event. People took use of Irangate to disclose the involvement of some American government office workers in U.S. selling arms to Iran. Camillagate was used to mean the love affair of British Prince Charles and his lover Camilla Parker. Nannygate was pointed to the illegal hire of baby-sitter or the hire of illegal immigrants. Another striking example, On September 11, 2001, the peace of a sunny late-summer morning was shattered by the impact of four hijacked airplanes on the World Trade Center towers, the Pentagon, and a field in Pennsylvania. There were more direct casualties in these disasters than on any previous day in American history, and soon the entire country felt the impact of damaged or destroyed lives, businesses, and sense of security. Out of the ashes came patriotism, resolve, and unity. And out of the ashes came new words, too, to describe new situations never before imagined. The events stir memories of Pearl Harbor and Oklahoma City, and we refer to other memorable occasions by their locations Lexington and Concord, Gettysburg, Little Big Horn, and Wounded Knee but in this case the name of place wont work. Its not just because several places were involved, but also because the places are too famous. New York City and Washington, DC, have too many other connotations, so do the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. For lack of a suitable designation deriving from place, we have used the date as a reference point: September 11. That does have a well-known precedent. One other event in American history is referred to by its date: July 4 or the Fourth of July, the date in 1776 when the Declaration of Independence was proclaimed in Philadelphia. In addition to the spelled-out month and day, the numerals 9/11 or 9-11 have been used. Never before has such a historic event been so labeled, but because of the striking coincidence that 911 is the telephone number to call for help in an emergency, that numerical designation has been a success. Headline writers like the concision of this expression, just three numerals to take in all the events of that day. So far, the events of that day have resulted in just one new term: ground zero, for the place of impact, the center of destruction in New York City where the World Trade Towers once stood. That phrase has succeeded because it is not really new; its an old term for the location on the ground directly under a vast atomic explosion, corresponding to air zero, the location in the air above the ground where the bomb goes off. Ground zero had been gathering dust on the shelf in recent years because of a fortunate lack of atomic explosions. No one knows who first said ground zero in reference to the site where the World Trade Towers were attacked and collapsed, but the term immediately caught on because of its familiarity and emotional power. Chapter 03:Success of English Neologisms 3.1. How are Neologisms Found? The authority for a word in fact, the authority for a language rests with the users of the language. Thus, the process of adding new words to the dictio ­nary begins with a systematic examination of almost everything printed and said in English. As far as Among the New Words is concerned, this important task citation with source information (qtd. in Algeo 1991a: 3) is fulfilled by active members of the Words Committee, who contribute the words they regard as new in any material they read or listen to (Algeo 1991a: 3). The cited word must contain the name of the publication, the day, and the page number. Concerning oral citations, the source information must consist of the day the sentence was heard and where and when one came across it (Algeo 1991a: 3). The following list shows that usually American dictionaries are consulted (with the exceptions of two British dictionaries: the OED and Websters Third) to check the newness of each contribution (Algeo 1991a: 2): Random House Websters College Dictionary, 1991. Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed., 1989. World Book Dictionary, 1989 Websters New World Dictionary, 3d College ed., 1988. Random House Dictionary, 2d ed. Unabridged, 1987. Websters Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, 1983. Websters Third New International Dictionary, 1961. Only if the new word is assumed to be British, are additional British dictionaries referred to. To make sure that a neologism has not been lexicalized yet, the following dictionaries of neologisms are used: Third Barnhart Dictionary of New English. 1990. Chambers English Dictionary, 1988. Collins Concise Dictionary, 2d ed., 1988. Collins Dictionary, 2d ed., 1986. Longman Dictionary, 1984. Readers Digest Great Illustrated Dictionary, 1984. If a word entered one of these dictionaries, then it is usually not recorded in Among the New Words (Algeo 91a: 2). Since Among the New Words receives more citations than there is space to print, a selection has to be made. The criteria on what and when to enter a word is up to the lexicographer. As I said, lexicographers have different opinions (Algeo 1991b: 75) and therefore it is hard to give exact rules. However, two principles can be set up: the absolutely newness of a word and the reflection of the zeitgeist. 3.2. Reasons of Success of Neologisms 3.2.1 The frequency of occurrences The most important factor is that a word appears in as many different sources as possible. The more sources (newspapers, magazines, books etc.) a word appears in, the more obvious is the frequency and range of the term (Sheidlower 33). Besides, the more a word is cited the more popular it is; and consequently the more likely it is to be included in a dictionary. 3.2.2 Range among sources It is of interest to know the range of the new word because if a word is only common in a special field, it is not a candidate for a general dictionary but rather for a technical one. Therefore, a general dictionary excludes technical terms or terms well known in a certain field because they are not of general interest. However, there are exceptions: the term intellectual property  [1]  was limited to certain fields. Today, its use is widespread because new technologies are invented; thus the intellectual property has to be preserved (Sheidlower 33). 3.2.3 Durability The use of a term over a certain time gives information on its durability. Nevertheless, this criterion must not be overrated. It is true that a word that appears over a certain time span, but otherwise does not constitute sufficient evidence (qtd. in Barnhart 59) probably will not be included; however, a brandnew word with sufficient evidence (frequency of occurrences, range among sources, cruciality in a given field) is likely to enter a dictionary (Sheidlower 34). Sheidlower points out that the criterion should rather be the number and range of citations than the newness of the word (34