Mass Tourism Essay

HOW DOES TOURISM IMPACT THE ENVIRONMENT The effect of tourism on the environment can be both positive and negative. Each person or group of people will impact the area they visit in a different way. Whether it is in a negative or positive manner is entirely up to the visitor. Let’s consider the NEGATIVE impacts first: POLLUTION – This is probably the biggest negative factor concerning tourism. People have to travel to their destination. It doesn’t matter if it’s by plane to another country or by car to the local national park, traveling puts emissions into the air. WASTE – People typically use disposable items when they pack for a trip, after all, it’s a holiday and who wants to be bothered with washing dishes or saving scraps for the compost? Landfill here it comes! PHYSICAL DAMAGE – especially to the local fauna and animal habitat. Tromping carelessly through the forest, smashing down delicate flowers and grasses or burning deadfall and destroying habitat for local ground dwelling animals. We may not even notice what we are doing but the local area does. NOISE – may not seem like a big deal, but loud noises can scare animals out of the area and possibly even disrupt the local ecosystem. There are some POSITIVE impacts too: AWARENESS – when people visit an area, they notice things a local person may not. A tourist is more likely to notice a problem like pollution or habitat encroachment and bring it to the attention of local authorities or even the world! EDUCATION – tourists provide an endless supply of people from around the world that can be targeted and educated on everything from forest stewardship to local history and plans for the future. FUNDRAISING – a tourist provides an easy target for fundraising. Tourists pay fees for everything from camping sites and park entry fees, to licenses for fishing and hunting. The more tourists in a controlled area, means the more money that can be collected for things like education, policing and maintenance of national wilderness areas. ACTION – tourists visiting an area do so for many reasons. Maybe they are looking for someplace quiet where they can commune with nature or perhaps they want to see a piece of history. Whatever the reason, when that tourist returns home, s/he will remember the experience and may feel compelled to do something positive for the environment to help save that area. These are only a few ways that a tourist can impact the environment. Your personal impact as a tourist is entirely up to you Case Studies In this unit you have studied how tourism impacts on a range of environments and how the impact of tourism can be managed. In the examination you will be asked about one or more of these environments. The question will be worth five marks on the Foundation paper and eight on the Higher, so you need to revise carefully for these. In this unit you have completed a case study for: 1. A UK National Park or a coastal area e.g. Lake District or Blackpool 2. A tropical destination e.g. Jamaica or Maldives 3. An extreme environment e.g. Mount Everest base camp, Nepal or Antarctica 4. An example of eco- tourism e.g. The Galapagos Islands On the following pages you will find some brief notes about each of the destinations above and some practice case study questions. A UK National Park: Lake District National Park Where is the Lake District and why do people visit? The Lake District National Park is in the North West of England and attracts 14 million visitors every year because it has spectacular scenery – mountains and lakes. There are also lots of opportunities for outdoor activities – hill walking, sailing, mountain climbing and cycling. People also visit the picturesque towns – Ambleside and Keswick to visit major tourist attractions such as Beatrix Potter museum and the pencil museum. What is the impact of tourism? Footpath erosion from the millions of walkers Conflicts between farmers and visitors because they leave litter, gates open, cause fires, create traffic congestion which affects their business and livelihood Traffic congestion as many visitors drive to the Lake District and the narrow country roads are not designed to cope Changes the character of quiet villages if tourists come in large numbers. Visitors can be noisy and might not respect the rural way of life Increased house prices as city folk buy second homes in the country, which make the more expensive for the poorer paid country people. How is tourism managed in National Parks? The National Park Authority is responsible for developing strategies to cope with large numbers of visitors to protect the residents, local economy, businesses and the rural way of life for the future. It does this in a number of ways: Development of tourism has been concentrated on specific sites e.g. Lake Windermere and Keswick in order to protect other areas. These developed areas are known as ‘honeypots’ Countryside footpaths have been reinforced to prevent erosion from the huge numbers of walkers Number of car parks has been increased to take traffic off narrow country roads and to prevent inconsiderate parking Employment opportunities increased for the local population when traditional farming industries are in decline through the development of ‘honeypots’ A tropical destination: Jamaica Where is Jamaica and why do people visit? Jamaica is a tropical island in the Caribbean Sea and is part of a group of islands known as the West Indies. The island receives over a million international visitors each year because it has wide, sandy beaches and attractions in the cities and towns such as bars, museums and theme parks. 8% of the population are employed in tourism and it’s a very important industry to the country because each tourist spends on average US$931 which is a 20% contribution to GDP. What is the impact of tourism? Jamaica is a destination that both benefits and suffers from ‘mass tourism’ Mass tourism is tourism on a large scale to a particular country or area. The destination will be at the development or consolidation stage on the Butler’s life cycle model. Negative impacts include: ï‚•ï€  Using up the little water the country has on swimming pools

Abrasive Water Jet Cutting Report Engineering Essay

Up until about the mid twentieth Century the bulk of production relied on â€Å" two traditional procedures of forming and machining ( Tlusty, 2000 ) . Forming is the procedure of altering the form of the whole work piece, whereas machining removes merely certain, and desired countries. Whilst these cardinal procedures still form the really anchor of contemporary production, there has besides been the demand for new procedures to be developed. The traditional procedures, as highlighted above, have a figure of built-in restrictions which limit their application to industry. In the instance of conventional machining procedures, a crisp film editing tool is used to organize a bit from the work by shear distortion. This consequences in the formation of high forces together with the corresponding mechanical energies. Together with this are a figure of extra jobs that can originate. Due to sum of energy required to transport out the operation, a physique up of unwanted heat can happen, which frequently leads to deformation of the work piece and surface snap. In certain instances, the forces introduced by the procedure are highly high and in order to procure the work piece considerable clamping forces are required ; this excessively can take to deformation. Together with these restrictions, the development of stuffs with belongingss of high strength, high hardness and high stamina has driven the debut of untraditional machining methods. Nontraditional machining ( NTM ) methods have been developed since World War II in an effort to turn to machining demands which can non be carried out by conventional methods entirely ( DeGarmo, Black & A ; Kohser, 2003 ) . NTM methods provide the ability to machine: Complex geometries ; Components with an first-class surface coating ; Delicate constituents, which otherwise would non defy the clamping forces ; and Brittle stuffs or stuffs with really high hardness. There are four types of untraditional procedures ; classified harmonizing to the principle signifier of energy used to consequence stuff remotion. These include: mechanical, electrical, thermic and chemical. One procedure which falls into the mechanical class is scratchy H2O jet ( AWJ ) film editing, and will be the focal point of this study. First, and prior to discoursing AWJ, the procedure of H2O jet ( WJ ) film editing will be introduced.Water Jet Cutting ( WJC )Water jet film editing, which is besides known as waterjet machining and hydrodynamic machining, was foremost developed in 1968, followed by the first commercial system in 1971 ( Zhong & A ; Han, 2003 ) . Through the usage of a all right, hard-hitting, high-speed watercourse of H2O directed at the work piece ( surface ) , a cut is created, as illustrated in figure 1 below. In order to bring forth the all right watercourse of H2O, a nose with an gap ( opening ) typically in the order of 0.1 – 0.4mm is used ( Groover , 1996 ) . Together with this, runing force per unit areas of around 400MPa and above are used to supply sufficient energy for cutting to be carried out. Furthermore, the fluid of the jet can frequently make 900m/s and the cardinal procedure parametric quantities include: H2O force per unit area, opening diameter, H2O flow rate and the working or ‘standoff ‘ distance between the nose and the work piece. Figure 1 – Schematic of WJC Process ( Groover, 1996 ) As the typical film editing force per unit areas as mentioned are required, a hydraulic pump is used to supercharge the fluid. The fluid is so passed through a valve, which regulates the flow rate in order to accomplish the optimal cut. The concluding phase of the fluid is to go through through the nozzle opening and impact the work piece surface from a controlled tallness.Procedure ParametersThe stuff from which the nose is made is doubtless the most of import parametric quantity in footings of procedure control ( as this greatly determines the opening diameter ) . The nozzle unit comprises of a unstained steel holder, together with a gem ; normally sapphire, ruby or diamond. Of these stuffs, diamond lasts the longest but is the most expensive. Recent progresss in the production of man-made sapphire offer this stuff as non merely the most cost effectual solution, but besides due to other advantages excessively. Man-made sapphire can be machined moderately accurately and besides has a high opposition to have on. The most common causes of nozzle failure are due to sedimentations come ining the fluid watercourse, therefore underscoring the demand for high degrees of filtration of the fluid prior to pressurisation, to cut down nozzle wear. With proper nozzle design a tight, coherent waterjet can be produced and maintained really accurately. When transporting out the cutting procedure, both the opening diameter and the ‘standoff ‘ distance must be closely monitored to keep a changeless deepness of cut. As the nozzle wears, compensatory alterations in the draw tallness must be made. Although existent draw distances vary from beginning to beginning, distances in the order of millimeters are normal ; normally around 0.25 – 3.5mm.WJC: Advantages and DisadvantagesWJC offers many advantages over conventional machining methods. This machining procedure provides the ability to cut stuffs without firing or oppressing the work piece. Furthermore, no important heat is generated, therefore, deformation is minimised and in some instances, eliminated. Unlike machining or grinding, no dust is produced ensuing in small environmental pollution. Other advantages include minimum material loss and easiness of mechanization when used with numerical control and industrial automatons. Whilst such advantages exist, one of the chief disadvantages to H2O jet film editing is that there are merely a limited figure of stuffs that can be cut economically ( MTU, 2009 ) . Although it is possible to cut tool steels utilizing this procedure, the provender rates have to be greatly reduced and therefore the edged clip increased. This, in kernel, consequences in a high cost procedure. Such stuffs that can be cut utilizing the H2O jet procedure include: plastics, fabrics, complexs, floor tiles, rug, leather and composition board.Abrasive Water Jet Cutting ( AWJC )To allow the film editing of difficult stuffs such as ceramics, metals and glass, together with those softer stuffs, for illustration froth and gum elastic, the WJC procedure requires the add-on of scratchy atoms, therefore organizing the scratchy H2O jet ( AWJ ) cutting technique. In a similar mode to WJC, the procedure is carried out utilizing a high-pressure, high-speed watercourse of H2O ; nevertheless, the discrepancy being that an scratchy stuff is dra wn in by a vacuity, which is created by jet watercourse. Figure 2 – Schematic of AWJC Process ( Meier, Louis & A ; Pilot, 1995 ) Figure 2 illustrates a typical apparatus for transporting out scratchy H2O jet film editing. It can be seen that this follows closely the agreement of WJC equipment, nevertheless, with the add-on of a twosome of cardinal characteristics ; viz. the scratchy eating system and a ‘catcher ‘ , which is required to protect the environment from the high energy jet.Procedure ParametersAs antecedently highlighted, the WJC procedure depends on a figure of parametric quantities. Whilst many of these are movable to the AWJC procedure, there are besides add-ons to reflect the alteration in cutting method. Momber & A ; Kovacevic ( 1998 ) present a list of such parametric quantities, which can be seen in figure 3 below. Figure 3 – AWJC procedure parametric quantities ( Momber & A ; Kovacevic, 1998 ) Although it is by and large accepted by many writers including JankoviA†¡ ( 2008 ) that the nose or opening diameter is the cardinal film editing parametric quantity, in the instance of AWJC, the abradant besides has considerable influences on the quality of the cut achieved. A choice of the parametric quantities as listed above has been explored in the subsequent subdivision, followed by an overview of the entire system control in the subdivision thenceforth.Procedure Parameters: Overview of Observed InfluencesThe most of import parametric quantity, by far, is the orifice diameter. The deepness of cut is straight relative to the opening diameter ; nevertheless, making an optimal point at big diameters. Although related to pump force per unit area, figure 4 below clearly illustrates this point, demoing how the deepness of cut varies with opening diameter. Figure 4 – Influence of opening diameter on the deepness of cut ( HeI?ling, 1988 ) Another parametric quantity that is closely linked to the opening diameter is the focal point diameter. This component of the cutting equipment determines the strength of the watercourse, therefore holding a direct consequence on the material remotion rate as shown by figure 5 below. Figure 5 – Influence of focal point diameter on the volume remotion rate ( Blickwedel, 1990 ) The focal point diameter is of import non merely in footings of the volume remotion rate but besides the deepness of cut. Figure 6 below shows how the deepness of cut is besides determined by this parametric quantity ; diminishing as the focal point diameter additions. The lessening in deepness of cut following an optimal point is realised by Himmelreich ( 1992 ) and has been attributed to high grades of turbulency. On the other manus, a peculiarly little focal point diameter gives rise to particle hit and clash, giving an inefficient procedure. Figure 6 – Influence of focal point diameter on the deepness of cut ( HeI?ling, 1988 ) Of the cutting parametric quantities listed, the crossbeam rate can be said to hold the greatest influence on the film editing procedure, followed closely by the draw distance. Both of these parametric quantities are controlled by machine design and therefore are bound by the makers ‘ specification. Figures 7 and 8 overleaf illustrate the influence of both the crossbeam rate and draw distance. It can be clearly seen that the deepness of cut lessenings as the crossbeam rate additions, following closely that of a squared map. However, on the other manus, the relationship between the draw distance and the deepness of cut is moderately additive ; with the deepness of cut decreasing as the draw distance additions. A big figure of scratchy stuffs are available for usage in AWJC. Typically these are loosely categorised as either oxides or silicates and there are, in a similar manner to the whole procedure, many parametric quantities that determine the features of an abradant. Figure 7 – Influence of crossbeam rate ( left ) and standoff distance ( right ) on the deepness of cut ( Blickwedel, 1990 ) Whilst it is hard to state precisely which parametric quantity has the greatest influence on the procedure, it is clear that both the hardness of the stuff together with the atom form and size, need consideration. Typical hardness values vary from 30 HV for Cd up to 200 HV for B carbide ( Kriegel & A ; Palmour, 1961 ) . Figure 8 shows the influence of both the atom form and size, whereas figure 9 overleaf high spots the significance of the mass flow rate of abradant on the deepness of cut achieved. Figure 8 – Influence of abradant ( atom ) diameter and size on the deepness of cut( Ohlsen, 1997 ; Oweinah, 1989 )Figure 9 – Influence of scratchy mass flow on the deepness of cut( Oweinah, 1989 )Abrasive Water Jet Cutting: Associated ProblemsIt is clear from the old subdivision that there are many parametric quantities that have an consequence on the AWJC procedure. If such parametric quantities are non carefully controlled, so the efficiency of the procedure decreases along with the quality of the machined portion. Some of the associated jobs are presented in table 1.Problem and definitionParameter ( s ) affected byConsequence on constituentTaper. This characteristic arises due to a difference in the breadth of the cut at the top surface and the bottom surface and is given as a ratio ( besides flank angle ) . Abrasive mass flow rate Focus diameter Standoff distance Trave rate This characteristic determines the dimensional truth of the portion. Initial Damage Zone. Abrasive atoms impact the surface at normal angles doing craters and abrasive-wear paths. Standoff distance Focus diameter ( Abrasive atom size – composite stuffs ) Some fictile distortion can happen. Change ( debasement ) in surface roughness/waviness. Trave rate Focus diameter/length Abrasive mass flow rate Abrasive atom size/type Surface belongingss of stuff are non as desired. Decrease in fatigue life of cut stuff due to check formation. Abrasive atom size Fatigue life reduced. Onset of stress-corrosion snap. Surface indurating due to procedure. Abrasive stuff Variation of hardness at distance from cut. Micro-structural alterations: Surface checking Phase alterations Abrasive-particle fragment implanting Delamination in composite stuffs Burr formation Assorted Assorted Table 1 – Problems that can originate when transporting out AWJCAbrasive Water Jet Cutting: Control MethodsTo guarantee such issues as those mentioned in table 1 do non happen, accurate control mechanisms must be in topographic point. There are many supervising mechanisms in topographic point today, some of which have been briefly described below. These methods lead to the control of the cutting procedure ; nevertheless, this is non automated in these instances. Jet-Structure Monitoring – used to command focal point diameter. Diameter of entry to concentrate point monitored to reflect alterations of focal point diameter. Wear rate can be monitored utilizing this method. Acoustic Sensing – used to supervise overall focal point conditions. System based on the fact that a alteration in the focal point conditions ( orifice diameter and concentrate diameter ) affects the sound generated by the system. Figure 10 ( overleaf ) illustrates the difference between the acoustic form of a new and worn nose. Inductive Measurement – used to supervise scratchy H2O jet speed. Method requires magnetic scratchy atoms. Abrasive jet is encircled by two little spirals, which is connected to a detection system. When the atom passes through the spiral, a little electric signal is created and the velocity determined. Figure 11 shows the typical apparatus of equipment, in this instance. Besides, laser systems similar to the above, nevertheless utilizing light pulsations alternatively. Material-Removal Visualisation – used to supervise material remotion rate. In a similar mode to Acoustic Sensing, noise of cut is monitored. Frequency of signal indicates type of cut ( inter-granular/trans-granular failure ) and therefore determines the efficiency of the cut. Workpiece Reaction Force – used to supervise deepness of incursion and surface topography. Empirical expression that takes into history all input parametric quantities excepting the crossbeam rate. Can go a force-feedback system ; leting parametric quantities to be modified to cut down the force. Figure 10 – Acoustic form for new and worn nose ( Kovacevic & A ; Evizi, 1990 ) Figure 11 – Initiation monitoring system ( Swanson, Kilman & A ; Cerwin, 1987 ) The above systems offer a chiefly generic attack to system patterning and supply small or no feedback. Modern control of AWJC makes usage of an intelligent monitoring and control system, which has full feedback capablenesss. Such an illustration by Srinivasu & A ; Babu ( 2008 ) utilises two systems: machine-vision based monitoring and intelligent control. The vision based portion monitors the size of the concentrating nose and the control system, which uses unreal nervous webs, continually modifies each parametric quantity to accomplish the best cut. A full analysis of this system is nevertheless beyond the range of this study. Abrasive Water Jet Cutting: Overview of Applications The applications of AWJC are huge, covering industries such as aerospace, automotive and electronics. It is beyond the range of this study to cover any peculiar country in important item ; nevertheless a few illustrations have been given below. Traditional and perchance even simple procedures have been ignored, and alternatively this study concentrates on a few non-standard applications.Meat CutingOne application of AWJ cutting is in the meat processing industry. Harmonizing to Wang & A ; Shanmugam ( 2008 ) , meat film editing is an of import activity and factors such as the cost, the presentation and sliting all need consideration. In this instance, salt is used as an scratchy and really good quality cuts, when compared to conventional film editing and even plain H2O jet film editing, can be achieved.Crunching Wheel ProductionThis illustration is slightly different to all other applications of AWJC as in most instances a through cut is desired. Axinte et Al. ( 2009 ) present an turn ing application, whereby crunching wheels are shaped harmonizing to their specification. Whilst this is considered a niche market, the writers conclude that AWJC has non merely the economical but besides proficient advantage for fabrication of this constituent. Assorted determining operations can be carried out, ensuing in such merchandises as figure 12 below. Figure 12 – Examples of crunching wheels manufactured utilizing AWJC ( Axinte et al. , 2009 )Polishing of SteelAnother application of AWJC is smoothing, and in peculiar steel. Yan et Al. ( 2008 ) describe this application, foregrounding that electrical-discharge machining ( EDM ) is normally used for mold production. The writers province that EDM typically leaves a brickle recast bed ; taking to the application of this smoothing method. When compared to traditional methods, AWJC has a lower scratchy ingestion and recycling is improved. In this illustration the abradant is SiC and to help the procedure is covered in wax. This consequences in a much finer surface coating.Complexs ProcessingThere are many applications of AWJC in relation to complexs treating as in some instances traditional single-point film editing procedures can non be used. For illustration, Komanduri ( 1997 ) describes that it is non possible to machine SiC whisker-reinforced aluminum oxide with a single-poin t film editing tool ; nevertheless, that it may be possible to determine by crunching. Whilst some complexs can be approached in this manner, rapid tool wear is experienced and therefore the debut of AWJC is a much better method.DecisionThe old subdivision provides a figure of non-standard illustrations where AWJC is being used. Although these give a general overview, AWJC can besides be used for alternate machining procedures, such as: milling, turning, piercing, boring ( although non level bottomed holes ) and thread film editing ( Momber & A ; Kovacevic, 1998 ) . Although such procedures as above can be achieved, in a similar instance to before there are many parametric quantities that need to be monitored. This is possibly a downside to this untraditional method unless modern control methods are introduced. Further disadvantages of the procedure include the fact that degradable stuffs can non be cut and the surface coating of machined constituents relies to a great extent on the procedure. Possibly the most important consideration of using this procedure is the apparatus cost ; which can be highly high in certain instances. One other disadvantage is the noise created by this fabrication procedure. Although, as highlighted above, there are many factors that control the procedure its application to modern industry has grown significantly since its debut in the 1970 ‘s. This has been driven chiefly by technological promotions, therefore leting this procedure to be developed, but besides due to of all time germinating stuffs that serve technology applications of today.

Hiv / Aids And Aids Essay -- AIDS, Immune system, HIV, South Africa

The entirety of the population of South Africa has been adversely affected by HIV/AIDS both in regards to the health of the people, and the economy of the country (Barks-Ruggles). For a few years now, the GDP of South Africa seems to have peaked in 2010, and has consistently lowered since. While not all of this is the result of HIV/AIDS, some of it is related. HIV/AIDS can affect the economy of South Africa in many ways, one such way is that it can it can lead to the death of many current and potential workers. As of 2015, the percentage of HIV prevalence in the population of population of South Africa is 19.1 (HIV). Another concern for the economy of South Africa comes from how productivity could be... ... middle of paper ... ...s languages of South Africa, who could teach communities about the virus, and could teach them how to treat those with the disease themselves would be a great step forward. I would also advise that we set up more clinics trained to help those with HIV/AIDS in areas of South Africa where it is most prevalent, such as KwaZulu-Natal, where as of 2009 around 39 percent of the adult population are infected (Dugger). If the areas with the highest amount of those with HIV/AIDS are targeted, it could lead to the information being spread out from there. The charity program AVERT based out of Brighton, United Kingdom, has been suggesting similar ideas, and is currently focusing their efforts towards helping those in the hotspots in South Africa. In short, HIV/AIDS must be combated if the world, let alone South Africa, wants to be able to control the rate at which it is spread.

Location, Location, Location Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Location, Location, Location - Essay Example Once the business starts, that money can be spent on other income-increasing investments. The next important advantage is the tax advantages in the form of reduced AMT (Doosan Global Finance, 2008). However, there are disadvantages too. First of all, leasing gives no ownership, and hence, returning the product or upgrading the product as one wishes will not be easy. Even if the thing goes into disuse, it will not be possible to dispose off the same, and till the termination of the contract, one will have to pay according to it. The second point is that when the expenditure over a long period is considered, it will cost more than actually owning the property. However, considering the low initial cost, possibility of open credit sources, chances of relocation and modification, it is wise to have property leased of owned (The top 10 reasons, 2012). The very first advice for the friend is to have the mobile home as office instead of building a permanent structure. This is so because not building a permanent structure at this beginning stage has financial advantages. First of all, the cost is spread over a number of years, and this, undoubtedly, helps in controlling the problem of cash flow. In addition, if the decision is to use the mobile home instead of permanent structure, it is easy to get the best location as there is no extra expenditure involved. Another problem is the issue of undercapitalizing. Here, one has to remember the fact that many businesses face failure because of undercapitalizing the business. This takes place because they spend the money on not so important investment. Doing this, especially when there is uncertainty regarding future cash flow, is disastrous. What is required is the strategy of staging investment. In the first stage, the business should not invest in building a permanent structure. In fact, there are a number of benefits as associated with not constructing a permanent structure, especially in accounting terms. They are: it

Homework Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Homework - Essay Example Also, each individual tile’s form would be hard to appreciate since it needs to be seen at a close range, which can only happen if the observer has to climb up the roof and inspect each tile separately. Lastly, because of the changes observed with regards to the architectural designs of houses and buildings, clay roof tiles are already rare and could easily be forgotten by most of the general public, unless these people live in old houses that still have them for roofs. A formalist perspective in finding aesthetic value for clay tiles can be used in order to explain how some principles of aesthetic reasoning can be applied to make people see these objects into works of art. Each clay tile or its grouping or arrangement can be described aesthetically using the second principle, which states that â€Å"Objects are aesthetically valuable if they express the values of the cultures they arise in, or the artists who make them.† (Moore 464). While roof tiles have the same func tion in various places around the world, the make and color of these tiles are different from one another, since it can be expected that topography, weather, and climate would contribute to these variations. But aside from these, there are also differences with respect to the different architectural styles of each place, due to the availability of other housing materials to complement the design of roofs. Such differences can contribute to the cultural aspects of seeing clay tiles as objects with aesthetic value since the identity of various cultures can be represented based on how different kinds of roof tiles are made and crafted by artisans or craftsmen in each location. Aside from the principle dealing with cultural identity, another principle that can also be used to describe and bring artistic and aesthetic attributes to clay tiles would be the seventh principle of aesthetic reasoning, which states that â€Å"Objects are aesthetically valuable if they possess a special aesthe tic (formal) property†. (465). Using the properties of unity and organization, clay roof tiles can be seen in another light by evoking onlookers a sense of unity and organization with regards to the arrangement of the tiles on the roof, as well as being properly-arranged, with no misplaced tile in sight. This can be much more appreciated in places where old buildings are still part of everyday living, such as the old houses in villas located in old towns such as Tuscany, Italy or in large Shinto or Buddhist temples in Japan. In analyzing clay roof tiles using formal properties and cultural perspectives, it is possible to make ordinary roofing materials into pieces of art which can evoke senses of beauty and history, among other things. Thus, this paper uses the argument that clay roof tiles are able to depict the customs, traditions, and artistic sense of the culture from where it comes from by way of the tile’s shape and arrangement on the roofs of buildings. The cultu ral aspect of the use of

Quiz on Philosophy and Psychology Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Quiz on Philosophy and Psychology - Assignment Example 2. Ancient Greek society witnessed the emergence of two of the most prominent thinkers the world has known today, namely, Plato and Aristotle. They each have contributed a great deal to philosophy and political science and have formed the basis for most of the subjects in the field of social science that people have tried to understand and take forward. Plato mainly wrote Socratic dialogues that have been used to understand his views on the mind, self and society. According to him, it is important for a man to have a stable thought process. He laid down theories like the Allegory of the Cave in order to depict the kind of limited knowledge that a man might have about the world around him and talked about society on the same lines. Aristotle on the other hand has been regarded as the father of political science and he said that society is made of people who need to live with accordance to the state that has been created by man as well. According to him, the mind is a tumultuous region within every man’s mind and should be understood by a man himself before being comprehended by another party so that a man does not conform to societal needs and wishes and is able to think for himself with respect to society. 3. Medieval philosophy is highly related to religion and theology and several doctrines were laid down during this period by renowned scholars and philosophers like Avicenna and Averroes. They argued about the differences between faith and reason, one of the highly debated topics of this period. They spoke along the lines of ancient Greek philosophers however, they tried to defend arguments directly related to faith and reason and at the same time, during this very period, religion came up in such a strong manner that it did not allow a large number of philosophical investigations to go beyond the existence and very authority of God. Their views on the mind, self and society were also related to faith, reason and in some cases, religion. 4. Psychology is the study of human behaviour; it aims to understand the science of mankind and how a man responds to and undertakes certain actions during the course of his lifetime. The Scientific Revolution stemmed the need to study this very subject because it instilled in people the love for reason and that is why people began to question the science behind acts undertaken by man. The 17th century has been regarded by most people as the age of enlightenment and two prominent thinkers of the very period were Galileo Galilei and Rene Descartes. They both argued under the roots of science however Galilei’s arguments concerned the more scientific aspects of the world in the matters of physics and astronomy whereas Descartes was famous for his various discourses on methods and philosophy concerning the existence of the mind and society that a man lives in. 5. An outside reality refers to a world outside a person’s imagination; it helps a man to understand that every physical entity in the universe has its own existence, outside a man’s mind. In the 18th century, philosophers like Voltaire and Montesquieu contributed the works of their intellectual capacities to

Group Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

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Patents provide competitive advantage for Kodak Essay

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Term Paper on Forest Resource Management in Bangladesh Essay Introduction Forests are a very important source of natural resources like wood, bamboo, thatching material etc. It also has a great influence on the environment like climate, water availability, soil erosion, flood and nutrient turnover. It is also the last portion of the world’s fauna and flora. Wood which is the main forest produce has been used from the very early days of human civilization. Even though substitute has been found for most natural materials wood remains irreplaceable in most of its uses. Wood is the major cooking fuel for vast majority of the world’s population; it provides the raw material for pulp, paper and cellulose base industries and is still a major component in the building industry. Wood is playing as important a role in human lives today as it did in the ancient times. It is still vitally necessary in the lives of people, particularly in the developing countries. With the increase in the population of the world, the pressure on land increased very greatly. This together with the requirement of timber for an increasing world population has resulted in large scale destruction of forest. According to Porte (1989) 33 million acres of tropical forests are cleared every year. The situation in Bangladesh is not any better than other developing countries. In fact because of its small land base and very large population, the situation here is more precarious than most other countries. The population of the country more than two and a half fold in the last four decades, while during the same period of time there has not been any addition to the existing forests except for the establishment of about 250,000 acres of plantation in the newly accreted coastal char land. Even though on record about 6.1 million acres of forest exists in Bangladesh, in reality, less than half of that can be considered as productive. This has been the result of over exploitation of trees resources for meeting the demand of population which is much larger than what our forest can support. A portion of the forest has also been lost to jhuming and encroachment. This has resultant in diminished supply situation causing a steadily widening gap between demand and supply of wood. Forests in Bangladesh Bangladesh has 2.60 million ha of forest land which is about 17.62% of the land area of the country. Of the forest land, Forest Department manages 10.37% (1.53 million ha) while the rest of the area is managed by either deputy commissioners of three hill districts (unclassed state forests) or privately manage (rubber and tea garden and social forestry plantation) though forest land is about 18%. However, actual tree covered area is only 8.6% (hill forest 2.7%, littoral 3.3%, Sal forest 0.8% an village forest 1.8%). The forest area of Bangladesh is presented in table 1. Forest situation in Bangladesh Bangladesh has lost over 50% of its forest resource over the period of about 25years. According to forests experts, we should have at least 25% of our total land area covered with trees, or forests to enjoy the benefit of nature. But a total of 769,000 hectares or 6% of the countries land mass have actual tree cover (from forestry master plan surveys by multi-lateral donor agencies). At approximately 0.02 ha per person of forest, Bangladesh currently has one of the lowest per capita forest ratio in the world. In Bangladesh, government owned forest area covers 2.19 million ha with the remaining 0.27 million ha being privately controlled homestead forests. Of the government owned forest land, 1.49 million ha are national forests under the control of the Department of Forest, with the rest being under control of local governments. Of the state owned forests, over 90% is concentrated in 12 districts in the Eastern and South-Western region of the country. However, due to over exploitation these forests have become seriously degraded. Major Causes for depletion of forest An inventory shows that there has been overall depletion in forest resources in all major state owned forest. The growing stock in Sundarban has been depleted from 20.3 million cubic meters in 1960 to 10.9 million cubic meters in 1998. In the Hill forest of hill districts, the growing stock has depleted from 23.8 million cubic meters in 1964 to less then 20.7 million cubic meters in l998. Over-cutting by timber merchants, increased consumption linked to population growth, shifting cultivation, encroachment, illegal felling and land clearing for agriculture, lack of participatory management have been the principal causes of deforestation and shrinking of forest land in the country. Status of the resources base Because of heavier exploitation than a desirable level, there has been an overall depletion in forest resources in all the major forests. The growing stock in Sundarbans has depleted from 717 million cu. ft. in 1960 (forestral) to 375.7 million cubic feet in 1984 (Chaffey, et.al.). This is roughly 48% depletion of tree resources in Sundarbans over 25 years. Similarly, in the reserved forest of Chittagong Hill Tracts the growing stock has depleted from 840 million cubic feet in 1964-65 (Forestral) to less than 700 million cubic feet in 1985. According to De Milde, et.al. (1985) there has been 61% depletion in growing stock in Ranglheong Reserve forests in the Hill Tracts between 1963 and 1983. Similarly the growing stock in the unclassed state forest has dwindled from 121 million cubic feet in 1964 (forests) to less than 50 million cubic feet at present. There has not been any stock taking of village resources after 1981. However, it is generally believed that over exploitation has caused substantial depletion of village tree resources. Flood has also caused a major destruction of village tree resources. Consumption According to the latest assessment, the per capita consumption of fuel wood and timber in 2.3 and 0.38 cubic feet respectively (Byron et. al. 1983). Based on this assessment, the consumption of fuel wood and timber during the current year is about 246.0 million cubic feet respectively. The broad usages of fuel wood are cooking fuel (Approx. 69%) brick burning (23% approx) and industrial fuel and raw material (Approx 8%). However, the above information does not provide an overall picture of the energy consumption in the country. Cooking fuel constitutes only about 70% biomass fuel consumption in the country and fuel wood constitutes only about 20% of all biomass fuel utilized as cooking fuel. Agriculture residue and cow dung constitute about 60% and 20% respectively of the biomass fuel consumption in the country. According to available information (BAPP report, 1985; Islam, 1986) about 38% of roughly 61 million metric tons of agricultural residues and 34% of 22 million tons of cow dung are used annually as cooking fuel. Agricultural residue and cow-dung can be used more profitably as animal feed and organic fertilizer. The result of use of these two commodities as cooking fuel has far reaching implication which are not confined just loss of animal feed and nutrients. Forest management in Bangladesh In Bangladesh management of government forest is the responsibility of the Forest Department under the Ministry of Environment and Forest. In this process the department is managing, protecting, developing the forest resources, forest land and also collecting the revenues. People have never been consulted nor involved in forestry activities. From the management point of view, forest of Bangladesh is being divided into three categories such as: ↠ State owned forest under the administrative control of Forest Department. ↠ State owned forest under the administrative control of Ministry of Land through District administration. ↠ Private village forest managed by private individuals. Type of forest The natural forests of the country are classified into three categories: 1) Tropical evergreen/ semi-evergreen forest in the eastern districts of Sylhet, Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts, and Coxs Bazaar: 2) Moist/dry deciduous forest also known as Sal forests in the central and the northwest region and 3) Tidal mangrove forest along the coast, known as the sundarban, the largest mangrove ecosystem in the world. These forests are official reserves and placed under the jurisdiction of the Forest Department. Unfortunately, recent inventories indicate a continuing depletion of all major forests. Forest under Forest Department control and management again divided into three major types, †¢ Hill Forests †¢ Plain land Forests and †¢ Mangrove Forests. Hill Forests: The tropical evergreen/semi evergreen forest cover as approximately 1.32 million ha of which 0.67 million ha is controlled by the forest department and rest is under the control of hill district council. Clear felling followed by replanting with suitable species (both long and short rotation) is the method of management in hill forest. Because of increased demand for timber and fuel wood and prevailing socio-economic condition of the country this forest has greatly affected and rate of denudation is considerably high. The forest department is mainly confined in raising of single species plantation. Inventory shows that most of these plantations would not give the desirable output. This programme suffers from technical, social and administrative soundness. Another problem is most of the hill forest are subjected to shifting cultivation by the hill tribes. The tribes are entitled to shifting cultivation in forest land under administrative control of district administration which has resulted in the total destruction of this tropical evergreen forest. The growing stock has depleted from 23.8 million cubic meters in 1964 to less than 20.7 million cubic meters in 1998. In the Chittagong Hill Tracts, substantial loss of forest resources is attributed to commercial exploitation of immature trees for sale in the black market in collusion with an unscrupulous section of the forest department people, said some sources that who preferred not to be identified. Commercial use of forest land for mono-culture of rubber and fuel wood also left negative impact on the country’s forestry resources. Mangrove Forests: The single largest chunk of productive forest in the country is located in the intertidal zone in the south western districts of Khulna, Bagerhat and Satkhira. It has a type of tree formation which grows on swampy land in undated daily by tidal water-which is known as a mangrove forest. This forests, otherwise known as the Sundarbans with an area of 1.46 million acres in the single largest source of timber and fuel wood in the country. It is also the single largest productive mangrove forest in the world. Sundarban forests are being managed by selection felling method followed by natural regeneration. Beside Sundarbans, plantations are being raised with mangrove species in the newly accreted char land all along the Coast of the Bay of Bengal. Sundarban forest is an official reserve forest; unfortunately recent inventory shows a continuous depletion due to over-cutting, illegal felling. It is estimated that in less then 25 years, the volume of commercial species Sundari, Gewa, has declined by 40 to 50% respectively. A new form of encroachment of forest is the clearing of trees for shrimp culture in the coastal areas, especially in Satkhira and Cox’s Bazaar. According to the department of environment (DOE), Chokoria and some other parts of the Cox’s Bazar area, have been completely destroyed in the last 13 years. Shrimp culture having devoured most of the forest land there. Plain land Forests: Plain land forests covering 0.30 million acres are located in greater district of Dhaka, Tangail, Mymensingh, Jamalpur, Rangpur, Dinajpur and Rajshahi. These forests are also known as Sal forests, because Sal is the predominant species. Silvicultural system applied for Sal forest was coppice with standard system. In this system matured trees were felled and the areas were protected for coppice regeneration. The typical nature of Sal forest is that this forest is scattered. In the forest areas there are agricultural lands owned by the adjacent people. Frequently these land owners are extending their lands and encroaching to forest and in the process they are destroying the forest and subsequently converting the area to agricultural land. In this process forest lands are being marginalized day by day. FAO estimated that only 36% of the Sal forest cover remained in 1985; more recent estimates that only 10% of the forest cover remains due to over exploitation and illicit felling through there is an official base on logging since 1972. Most of the Sal forests are now substantially degraded and poorly stocked. Forest management approaches in Bangladesh Since 1960 two major approaches regarding the role of forestry in development have been reflected in the forestry sector of Bangladesh. In the 1960s, Bangladesh as a part of Pakistan and then as an independent nation has followed An Industrialization Approach consonant with the international conventional wisdom at that time. As a result, Department of Forest raised large-scale Industrial plantation which were seen as conversion of low-yielding natural forest into artificial plantation of species (mostly teak) of great economic importance. This conversion of semi-evergreen and evergreen forest into deciduous teak plantation was largely concentrated in hill forest areas. During the plantation raising local people were not consulted and often they did not drive any benefits from these plantations. The lack of support by the local people/ communities in combination with lack of silvicultural knowledge and lack of proper maintenance contributed to raise low quality plantations and these plantations were also lost due to illegal felling. Forest Department was considered as revenue earning department. The main activities of Forest Department were concentrated in extraction of trees from the forest and replanting of those felled areas where applicable, Forest Department has not considered the people and their participation in managing forest of the country. In the 1980s following a change in thinking about the role of forestry in development, and people’s participation in forestry activity was encouraged. People participation with the forestry sector realized the need of people oriented forestry programme to replenish the degraded forest resources of the country. Accordingly, in 1994 Government formulated a forest policy replacing earlier one enunciated in 1979 with a due emphasis to the need for peoples participation in forest management. Participatory forest management approach in Bangladesh (a). Past activities Forest extension activities were formally launched in the country in the year of 1964 with the establishment of two forest extension divisions at Dhaka and Rajshahi and later two divisions at Comilla and Jessore. It was really a very small programme and the activities were confined only to establish nursery in the districts headquarter and raised seedling and sell the same to individuals and organizations. The location of this programme was so urbanized and limited that it only partially served the needs of the effluent town dwellers only. (b). Betagi- pomora comunity forestry project The first community forestry programme in the country, started at Betagi and Pomora mouza under the district of Chittagong in the year of 1979 with the personal initiative of Prof. A. Alim, renowned forester and Prof. Dr.Mohammed Yunus, founder of Gramen Bank. Initially the project covered 160 ha of Government denuded hilly land at Betagi and with 83 landless participants from adjacent community and subsequently extend over another 205 ha of Government owned denuded hilly land at Pomora with another batch of 243 landless (families) participants. Under this programme each landless participant was provided with 1.62 ha of land for growing tree and horticultural crops with technical and financial assistance from the Forest Department. This community programme has given the landless an identity of their own and a sense of direction in life. But this model has not been replicated in the other areas due to lack of initiative of the Forest Department as well as the Government. (c). Rehabilitation of Jhumia families (shifting cultivator families) Another project was undertaken by the Forest Department in the Hill tract areas to establish plantation through rehabilitation of Jhumia families in 1980. Main objectives of the programme were, I. To rehabilitate tribal families in the Unclassed State Forest (USF) lands along with rehabilitation of denuded USP land; II. To introduce a sustainable agro forestry production system; III. To improve the socio-economic condition of the tribal people and IV. To motivate tribal people in development of forestry. Under this programme each family was allocated 2.02 ha of USF land for growing agricultural crops (over 1.20 ha), raising plantation (0.80 ha) and for house construction (0.20 ha). The rehabilitated families were given land use rights and were allowed to enjoy 100% benefits accrued to those lands. The participants were given input support for growing agriculture, horticulture and forestry crops and cash support for house construction. This programme continues for quite a long period of time but could not sustain mainly because of nomadic character of the tribal groups. Another reason of failure was that the families were rehabilitated in clustered villages without considering their cultural and religious values. Thus in most of the cases, it was found that the families have left the area. A parallel programme was also initiated by the Chittagong Hill Tract Development Board in which Forest Department was responsible for implementation of afforestation component where Chittagong Hill Tract Development Board was responsible for the rehabilitation component. This program was also not found so much responsive to hilly people except for some plantation establishment. (d). Development of community forests project The activities of the first phase of this project began in 1981 and were completed in 1987 in seven greater districts of the North-Western zone of the country. The main components of the project were: ââ€" ª Strip plantations along roads and highways, railways, canal sides, district and Union Parishad roads, totaling about 4,000 km. ââ€" ª Fuel wood plantation on 4800 ha of depleted Government land on participatory concept. ââ€" ª Agroforestry demonstration farms over 120 ha also with participatory concept. ââ€" ª Replenishment of depleted homestead wood lots in 4,650 villages. ââ€" ª Training of Forest Department Personnel and Village leaders. (e). Development of forest extension services (l980-l987) Development of Forest Extension Services (Phase II) began in 1980 with the Government funding and subsequently amalgamated in some areas (i.e. North-North West district) with Asian Development Bank funded Community Forestry Project. The main activities under this programme were: ↠ afforestation in some 3100 villages. ↠ roadside tree planting along 3600 km of primary highways and roads and about 600 km of Union Parishad roads. ↠ Production of 49 million seedlings for distribution. (f). Thana afforestation and nursery development project This project is a follow-up of Development of Community Forestry Project and Forest Extension Project and has been designed primarily to: o Increase the production of biomass fuels and o Enhance the institutional capability of FD and local administration in implementing a self-sustaining nationwide social forestry programme. In order to increase the production of biomass fuel and to arrest the depletion of tree resources, the project envisaged to develop tree resources base through planting of depleted Sal forest as well as brining all suitable and available land in the rural areas under tree cover with active participation of the rural poor of the locality. Originally the project was to be implemented by the Forest Department and former Thana Parishad during the period of 1987 to 1994. But in 1992 Government decided that the all project activities were to be implemented by Forest department alone. The major components of the project were: 1. Establishment of plantation over 20,225 ha depleted Sal forest areas. 2. Development of agroforestry over 4,200 ha in the Sal forest lands. 3. Raising strip plantation on 17,272 km along Road and highway, Railways, Embankment and Feeder Roads. 4. Raising l, 282 ha plantation in the land outside the BWDB. 5. Planting 7.017 million seedlings at the premises of different education, religious and social institutions 6. Establishment of 345 nurseries at Thana headquarters. 7. Raising of l0.6l8 million seedlings for distribution to public. 8. Training of some 76,000 people of different levels. Here this may be mentioned that at the last stage of the project implementation, the Government has found that this was quite impossible to protect the strip plantation and also impossible to trained 76,000 people by the Forest Department alone. The Government invited NGOs to participate in this programme for successful implementation. PROSHIKA, POUSH, GRAMMEN BANK and other NGOs came forward to help the Government for successful completion of the project; NGOs employed their group members to protect the strip plantation and ADAB came forward to train people at different levels with the help of its member organizations. The above plantation activities were carried out with the direct participation of the local people with the help of the NGOs by executing benefit sharing agreement. (g). Coastal greenbelt project Another project financed by Asian Development Bank is under implementation in the Coastal region of Bangladesh. The main objective of the project is to create a vegetative belt all along the coast to save the lives and properties of the people living in the coastal areas from devastated cyclone and tidal surges which occur very frequently in those areas. All of the activities of this project are also being carried out following participatory approach. In this project also the participants have been selected among the poor people living in the adjacent areas by involving NGO and a pre-designed benefit sharing agreements also being executed with the participants to protect their rights over plantations and to ensure benefit expected to be received out of the plantation. (H). Agroforestry research project Pilot Agroforestry Research and Demonstration was implemented by the FD in the Sal forest areas. The project had been developed precisely to design/develop agroforestry modules which is environmentally feasible, socio-economically acceptable enhance tree and crop production at the same time to uplift the socio-economic condition of the participants. The project aimed at using 120 ha of encroached Sal Forest land of Dhaka, Mymenshing and Tangail Forest Division to develop suitable participatory plantation models. (i). Food assisted social forestry programme The World Food Programme assisted the Government to develop Social Forestry as a national programme and the Government incorporated WFP assisted social forestry programme in its annual development plan from 1998. Poverty alleviation, economic rehabilitation of rural poor especially the destitute women of the society by engaging them in forestry activities, social uplift of rural poor and environmental improvement are the main objectives of this project. Historically this programme was conceived in the country since 1989 on pilot basis allocating in kind resources (Wheat) to a limited number of NGOs for raising strip plantation along roads, embankments, Highways etc. in rural areas following the participatory mechanism. In implementing this programme FD was involved later on to provide technical guidance to the NGOs and other GOB agencies. At present probably this is the largest Participatory Forestry Programme in Bangladesh. From l990, 100 NGOs are involved in this programme and at present about 60 NGOs are continuing with the programme. Commencing from 1990 up to 1998 about 31 million trees were planted involving 0.062 million people directly and 0.62 million people indirectly. The programme has created employment to the tune of 68 million man days. This programme is being implemented by the NGOs through contractual benefit sharing among participating poor men women 60%, NGOs 10%, the rest land owners. NGO participation in the forest management In Bangladesh the history of NGO involvement in the field of development is not very old. After liberation, NGO started their activities through relief and rehabilitation of the war victims. During mid-seventies, NGO switched over to the socio-economic development of the rural poor, and at present there are thousands of NGOs most of whose mandate is to organize rural poor and provide awareness, education, skill training and various support services including credit to enhance participation of landless poor in the development process towards self-reliance. On the basis of the networking throughout the country the NGO can be classified into two levels; I) local and II) National. At present more then 100 NGOs both local and National are implementing social forestry programme in Bangladesh. It is not possible to enlist activities of all the NGOs involved in the Social forestry programme in the country. The participatory forestry activities of some of the NGOs are highlighted here who are playing pioneer role in this field. BRAC: The Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC) has been established in 1972 and this is the largest NGO in Bangladesh. BRAC has six categories of projects/ programmes in broad sense among which Social Forestry falls within rural development programme. The Social/ Participatory forestry has three components; 1. Nursery establishment; 2. Plantation and 3. Establishment of agroforestry. They claim that they have assisted their women members in raising more then 225 homestead nurseries and 100 large nurseries with a combined production capacity of a million seedlings of fruits and forest seedlings. They have established 200 mulberry nurseries with the production capacity of 2 million seedlings. Social afforestation programme of BRAC is WFP assisted which has been commenced from 1989 and till now it is going on. Most of the plantation under this programme has been established along the strips. Up to this time about 33.72 million seedlings have been planted over an area of 33,700 km strips along road, railway and embankment. This programme involves about 670,000 participants of which 80% are women. PROSHIKA: Proshika A center for human development is one of the largest NGO in Bangladesh. The Social Forestry Programme of Proshika is a systematic intervention effort to enhance afforestation in the country and to make a case that the poor are the best managers and protectors of forest resources if they are granted usufruct rights on these resources. Proshika has introduced its group members in social forestry activities and provided them with credit and technical support, which contributed significantly to their self-sufficiency. The main components of social forestry programme of Proshika are; a. Homestead plantation; b. Strip and block plantation; c. Natural Forest protection, and d. Nursery establishment. Proshika has planted 71 million seedlings which covered along 8,887 km strips, 37,662 areas of block plantation which included natural Sal forest protection throughout the country. One of the most significant contributors of Proshika to the development arena is the introduction of the concept of participatory forest management for natural forest protection. Proshika has successfully involved the forest dwellers in the Sal forest areas of Kaliakoir, Mirzapur, Shakhipur and Shreepur thanas under district of Tangail and Gazipur for the protection of coppice Sal forest by involving group members of Proshika. It has already been proved that when poor people surviving on the forest resources are organized, trained and granted usufruct rights, they present on enormous human potential needed for afforestation and forest protection. RDRS: The Rangpur Dinajpur Rural Services operating in 28 thanas of greater Rangpur and Dinajpur districts covering 28 thanas. It is the largest International Integrated Rural Development NGOs operating in Northern Bangladesh for more than two decades. Its entry point in forestry was through road side plantation in 1977. Initially, seedlings were protected with bamboo cages. Situation has been changed a lot nowadays and protection of seedlings with bamboo cage has be come a part of history. Besides strip plantation, they also extend their tree plantation programme in homestead, institutional grounds as well as raising of local nurseries. With the assistance of WFP they have planted about 10.66 million trees under their participatory afforestation programme. TMSS: It stands for Thangamara Mohila Sabuj Sangha. It is an NGO exclusively meant for women. Although, it was initiated in l976, its presence was visible only since 1965. This NGO be1ieves in the concept of simple living and high thinking. TMSS was also involved in the social forestry programme particularly in the Northern districts of Bangladesh. The organisation has been implementing both road side and farm forestry with assistance from the WFP and Swiss Development Corporation (SDC) respectively. POUSH: Another NGO has been engaged in planting in the private lands also by persuading the owner farmers in Baroibari, Kaliakoir thana with the food aid from WFP. Its activities in the forestry field are limited to strip plantations and it plans to expand its programme extensively. Target groups of POUSH are mostly landless destitute, widow and divorced women. POUSH also happens to be the first of its kind to get involved in participatory forestry in the hill district of Bandarban. Problems and prospects of participatory forest management Considering the demand and supply situation for forest products to meet the economic and environmental needs, no one can deny the need of peoples participation in forestry. Probably there is no second answer except participatory forestry in developing, managing, and protecting the countrys forest land and the forest resource. But there are numbers of issues remain unresolved. As a technical department, Forest Department is playing pioneer role in implementing and popularizing Participatory Forestry in the country. Up to this time Forest Department is managed by the professional foresters who have educational background only in managing traditional forests and who do not consider people as development partners. Participatory Forestry, if we recollect the Chinese proverb, needs mental development managers towards the people. Realization has started among the planners, policy makers, administrators and senior managers to involve people in forestry development activities. But up to this time Government has failed to adopt real Participatory Forestry programme to address the basic need of the peoples. Mobilization of the people in participatory forestry programme is another bottleneck of the Forest Department who has not had the machinery to reach the community people. NGOs who work at the grassroots level have developed their own expert to mobilize people and ensure their participation in any development programmes as partner. So NGO should be involved in the implementation of the participatory forestry programme where Forest Department should confine their activities only in technical aspect. In the context of Bangladesh, the scarcity of land is a most vital problem. On the other hand, Forest Department controlling over 16% of the total land area of the country is still hesitant to allow Participatory Forestry in reserved forest areas. According to FD, it should be confined only in public and private lands beyond reserved forest areas through these are devoid of trees. The Participatory Forestry is being practiced in marginal lands which are under administration control of other Government departments. Recently, due to pressure from planners and donor communities, Forest Department has allowed to practice participatory forestry in Sal Forest areas. Tenure of the contract was found as a bottleneck for implementing Participatory Forestry. Forest Department allowed rights of participants over these lands for a period of seven years, but there was a strong desire, that this tenure should more and at least for rotation period, so that participants can manage and protect trees till harvesting. A negative attitude was also observed among the Foresters to involve women in forestry activities. They viewed that activities of women should be confined in the areas where there is a locality apprehending the social problems. But in participatory forestry both men and women should be treated equally. Recommendations †¢ All vacant areas within existing forests which is about 50% of the total forest areas should be brought under tree cover immediately to make total forest areas 25%. †¢ Use of organic fertilizer should be encouraged to people as alternative use of fuel wood and burning of cow dung and agro residues should be reduced. †¢ The forest policy of 1994 needs a fundamental change to make participatory forestry approach as a core concept for social fencing against forest destruction and for poverty alleviation through income generation. †¢ An independent Forest Policy needs to be formulated to promote Participatory Forestry in the country. †¢ For implementing Participatory Forestry programme, Land as an input is to be ensured with authority. Preset land lease system is neither responsive nor effective for practicing Participatory Forestry in the country. Tenurial rights of land in-stead of land use right is to be given to the participants. †¢ To make effective participation of the people on a sustained basis, sufficient motivation is required and this responsibility must be given to the NGOs. †¢ Involvement of the groups in planning and decision making is to be ensured through proper policy directions. †¢ Provision should be made for giving subsistence to the participants so that they can survive and keep confined their activities in the programme. †¢ A National forum where there will be representation all from Government politicians, NGOs and private sector. They will act as a coordination body to coordinate among all the participants like land owning agency, NGO, Forest Department and the participants. †¢ NGO should act as a catalyst and they should not be treated as a competitor of Forest Department. †¢ Process of recruiting NGOs by inviting tender for implementing any Participatory Forestry programme of the Government must be avoided. ADAB may be given the responsibility to identify the NGOs for a particular programme implementation. †¢ Major reforestation and afforestation programmes with community participation in a profit sharing basis and improvement in technology and management of plantation are required. †¢ Institutional capacity, policy and legal framework of forestry management should be strengthened. †¢ Forestry professiona1s should be trained in environmentally sound forestry. †¢ Implementation strategies for community management of forestry resources should be developed. Conclusion Bangladesh has a small land base and a large population. Area under tree cover is small and shrinking. Some forest areas are located in inaccessible areas. It is important that whatever area is for planting, should be brought under such practice in an organized fashion. Through intensive manipulation of crops, it is to increase production per unit of land substantially. If such is the importance of forests, of trees, in the ecology and the economy of a country, and therefore in the lives of its people, it is very urgent to manage the resources. Traditionally, forest has remained the function of only the forest department. A change of this attitude is essential and development, management and production of forest should become the function of the entire population of the country, not only for ensuring improved supply of wood but also for the maintenance of a quality environment.

Explaining the role of effective communication Essay Example for Free

Explaining the role of effective communication Essay There are wide ranges of ways that communication can take place for example one to one conversations, group conversations. This can either be informal or formal depending on the individual’s outcome. An example of effective communication that can take place in a health and social care setting is a hospital, for example a nurse and her colleague are talking about how much they enjoy their jobs, and this is a form of effective communication. One- To –One communication – A one to one happens when a person speaks to a individual, or writes to the individual to form effective communication. In a one to one communication, it is always effective as both of the people in the one to one work together effectively and interacts well, as both individuals are relaxed and are listening to each other, in a result the communication works effectively and both parties leave with a resolved matter and everything is positive. One to one communication can be formal or informal. An formal one to one communication can take place in a GP, where the patient is discussing their personal problem with the Doctor and the doctor is helping the individual out with their problem, this is part of effective communication as the one to one interacting is working effectively. An informal one to one communication, can take place in a health and social care setting, where two colleagues are on their lunch break and are discussing about how their day has gone so far and etc. , this is a part of effective communication as both parties are interacting effectively. Group communication In a group communication, there is often more going on as it is a wide range of people within the group. During the group communication, each individual will try and get their points and ideas across to the people within the group and the rest will listen and be considerate towards the person speaking. That is a way of effective group communication, as the interacting between the group is working well and effectively. A group communication can be a great benefit, as it’s easier to make decisions and problem solving a ituation as you have various people giving different views and feedback to a matter, and that’s a great way of effective communication. A group communication can include multi- professional working, multi-agency, which happens with professionals and people using services. A multi-professional working involves numerous professionals working together in order to meet the needs of an individual. This will include doctor, police, and social worker to meet the needs of a young adult in a bad situation. Multi-agency is when different organisations work together effectively to the best possible service to families, children and young people. Formal communication Formal communication is a form of communication used by professional to communicate with clients and individuals. This form of communication is important because it shows the professional is showing professionalism within the work their doing to deliver the best possible care for the individual as well as the communication working effectively. An example of formal communication can be, ‘ good morning Sir/Mrs, this shows respect towards the individual. It is important not to use jargon or slang whilst communication formally, because you will come across as you’re not serious about your work, and also the client my not be pleased, also jargon can be a barrier because it can affect the communication between the client and professional due to not understand the technical words. Informal communication Informal communication is a casual exchange or letter that doesnt follow to all of the rules of formal communication. Its like saying hey instead of hello and also writing to your friend and talking about personal things. These are things youd never do in a business environment because it can be considered as formal communication. Informal communication is good way of communication as it can make a individual more relaxed and effective as it’s more easier and complex for the person to interact, as they don’t have to worry about being proper and correct. Interpersonal interaction Interpersonal interaction is how people relate towards each other in a verbal nteraction or non-verbal interaction. Verbal interactions include speech, tone of somebody’s voice, listening and language. Non-verbal interactions include a person’s body language and the way they express it for example their posture, facial expression and their proximity. Interpersonal communication can take place in a health and social care setting, for example: at a care home, there is a new career and she does not s peak English properly, so therefore it is hard for her to interact with the residents, which makes this is a language barrier. P2 – Argyle’s Theory of the Communication Cycle Michael Argyle is a social psychologist who developed theories about interpersonal interaction and human communication. He carried out experimental theories of non-verbal and verbal communication to develop and test he’s theoretical ideas. He has a communication cycle which explains and predicts how communication can occur in a one to one situation. 1. An idea occurs. A resident wants to go to the library and is trying to convince her carer. 2. Message coded. She talks to her carer about the books she used to read and how much she misses reading them. 3. Message sent. The carer says to the resident, ‘what was your favourite book’ this shows the message is sent and the carer understands what the resident is talking about. 4. Message received. Now the carer know what the resident’s favourite book is the resident is happy and is smiling. 5. Message decoded. Then the carer says to her resident would you like me to take you to the library so we can have a look if they have your favourite book and other books your interested in? 6. Message understood. Here the resident is happy and so is the carer because now they both understand each and the communication between the two has worked effectively. Bruce Tuckman defined a model of group development based around numerous stages, sequences or group activity. Tuckman suggested that these stages should happen in order for effective communication to occur in the groups interaction as well as the four stages being completely different. Forming – it is the start of the year and new infants have started the nursery, they tend to be shy and well reserved as they are not used to each other. Storming – as they start to settle in for about a month, they because more comfortable and relaxed with each other, in some cases this might not happen, someone would want to be dominant out of the bunch and this may cause conflict between the infants. Norming – in this stage everyone had built a strong bond between each other, and is working together well. Performing – in this final result the infants become mature and tend to realise that working together effectively can be a positive thing. M1 – Assess the role of effective communication and interpersonal interaction in health and social care with reference to theories of communication. The roles of effective communication in a health and social care setting, is to ensure that if communication with a resident, you must make sure to talk clearly and slowly, face to face make sure the person understands you and you’ve got your message across in the right way, in order for the communication to work effectively. The types of reference to communication are sign language, makaton and braille. These are part of effective communication as they are used by people with a hearing or blind impairment and leaning difficulties in order for them to communicate with others around them. Effective communication is a two-way process in which a person tries to understand the viewpoint of the other person. Communication is a cycle because when two people communicate they will need to make sure that they got their ideas across towards each other and they are understood. There are also barriers that can occur in a communication due the individual’s circumstance, for example: a person using slang, jargon o complex technical terminology can be heard, but their message may not be understood. Scenario I’m going to give a scenario between doctor and a patient, showing communication working effectively. Nurse : did you rest well last night Mrs Jones? Patient: yes I did nurse, I’m feeling slight better. Nurse: that’s a great improvement then, I’m glad you are. Patient: thank you very much nurse. Nurse: I am always here to help my dear. This is a very good way of effective communication, as the nurse and patient are interacting well and both parties are happy as they have understood each other. References (http://www. businessdictionary. com/definition/informal-communication. html) (http://wiki. answers. com/Q/What_is_formal_communication_in_business_organization)

Relationship between prefrontal cortex and antisocial behaviour

Relationship between prefrontal cortex and antisocial behaviour The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is an essential aspect of the frontal lobes in the brain. Executive function is carried out by the prefrontal cortex: where abilities to differentiate among conflicting thoughts and to determine what is good or bad operate. The PFC is connected very compactly with the rest of the brain which allows the PFC to be responsible for guiding features such as memory, emotion, decision-making, planning actions, and attention. If the PFC is damaged and the activity in it is minimal then this affects many things. The PFC could be damaged by lesions or even due to the misuse of drugs or alcohol (Rogers et al., 2010). In turn the damage to the PFC can lead the brain to make irrational decisions; have loss of behavioural control or even have a complete personality change: all of which explain why people may perform antisocial behaviour (ASB). Lesions in the prefrontal cortex have massive effects on decision making. (Manes et al., 2001). ASB stems from the fact that a human being has taken the decision as to whether they should act in a way that is not seen as appropriate in society: therefore, the damage to the PFC may have led them to this decision. Manes (2001) carried out a study to examine this theory. Manes found that out of several different groups he had with lesions in different parts of the brain the group with large frontal lesions was the only group to exhibit risky decision making. This contradicts most other studies: including studies by Benjamin Libet and colleagues which showed that brain activity associated with deliberate decisions can be detected shortly before we are conscious of making the decision. (Libet, 1983) Participants were asked to note when they first felt the intention of making a movement by noting the position of a dot on a computer screen. The participants were first aware of their intentions about 200 milliseconds before actually acting. This is much later than the onset of readiness potential: meaning that the decision to act in a particular way in this study was risky. This experiment was heavily criticised for its accuracy. However, recent research has proven that if anything the actual onset of conscious intention is later. (Lau, 2006). The PFC can not only change the way somebody makes decisions -many studies have proven that lesions in the PFC can cause a complete personality change, where a good mannered personality can be changed instantly to an unpleasant one. (Chow, 2000) This was substantially displayed in the accident of Phineas Gage, (Harlow, 1848) where he survived a horrific accident after a large iron rod went completely through his head, destroying much of his brains left frontal lobe. This accident resulted in a vast personality change of Gage, which raised one of the first discussions as to whether damage to the prefrontal cortex can change a persons behaviour. This then led to even more studies into this issue which resulted in one of the largest studies of patients with brain damage. Grafman (1996) found that the patients that showed an increase in aggression were most strongly associated with PFC lesions in a sample of 279 veterans of the Vietnam War. However, the higher scores were mostly associated with verbal aggression rather than physical. This, yet again, supported Harlows observation of Gage. (Grafman, 1996) The PFC is essential for behavioural control; therefore, this is why PFC lesions lead to ASB. Anti-social behaviour can be described as behaviour that is likely to cause harassment, alarm or distress to [others]. (Riley, 2007). Many studies have demonstrated the direct effect that the PFC has on determining ASB. Violent behaviour is connected with structural and functional shortages in the prefrontal cortex according to many brain imaging studies. A meta-analysis of these studies was carried out by Yang et al (2009), where 43 structural and functional imaging studies were looked at. Results showed an 11% reduction in PFC grey matter in patients with anti-social personality disorder (APD). From all of these studies it was concluded that there is reduced prefrontal structure and function in antisocial individuals. Anderson (1999) also investigated this he examined the long term consequences of PFC lesions before 16 months in two adults. It resulted in the two adults having severely impaired social behaviour despite basic cognitive abilities and also insensitivity to consequences of decisions. The two patients suffered from defective social and moral reasoning; showing attainment of complex social and moral rules had been impaired. This study explained that early prefrontal damage syndrome leads to syndrome resembling psychopathy. A great deal of empirical research demonstrates that mental illness is higher in incarcerated populations and estimates that as many as 25% of defendants evaluated for capability are medically and legally incompetent to stand trial. (Golding, 1984). With this fact in mind, many people argue that minds are simply what brains do (Minsky, 1948) If this is the case then people are controlled by their brain, therefore have little personal choice as to how they behave. It is clear that the PFC has a huge effect on behaviour of human beings. It can have such an effect that it changes a persons entire personality from positive to negative. Anything that minimises the activity in the PFC can lead to negative consequences. It can make somebody less effective at decision making; make people violent and entirely change somebody as a person. All of these things in turn lead to antisocial behaviour which raises huge debate as to whether people who are antisocial due to minimal activity in the PFC are criminals or are innocently mentally ill human beings. It is certain how important the PFC is to the brain and the research that has been carried out shows that we should not abuse the PFC (alcohol, drugs) as it is very significant to enable us to behaviour in a responsible manner.

Essay --

Joseph Winkelmann Mr. Sargent English 250 16 December 2013 Stem Cells Although stem cell research is a hot topic in politics and the scientific field as of late, it dates back to the 1950s. Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can become any cell, such as but not limited to skin cells or brain cells. These cells are some of the first cells in the human body. Not only do they divide and form new cells rapidly in the embryonic stage, they can form any specialized cell in the human body, a process called differentiation. They can also form new stem cells, a process called self-renewal (Staff). Although the fear of unethical human cloning is present, the study of stem cells is necessary because it can improve society by testing new medications for safety and effectiveness, and by finding the cure of potentially fatal diseases, such as cancer. Stem cells can only be acquired from a few places. Embryonic stem cells are formed in the embryo just a few days after fertilization. By this point, there are about one hundred cells; this is called a blastocyst. Of those one hundred cells, ten to twenty are unspecialized stem cells (â€Å"Embryonic Stem Cells...†). These stem cells, known as pluripotent cells, can make every type of cell in the human body. The blastocyst is the only place that pluripotent cells can be found in the body. The long term goal of true embryonic pluripotent cells is to be used to repair diseased tissue; however; at this point in stem cell research, embryonic stem cells are being used for research purposes, specifically to determine how diseases originate and progress in the human body (Staff). Another type of stem cells is adult stem cells. Found in small quantities, these cells are located in the bone... ...and cost over $6 million,† (â€Å"Product Development...†). Cutting out even one fourth or one third of drug and toxicity testing on animals would lead to multi-million dollar savings. There would also be savings in terms of energy and resources dedicated to studying experiments that result potentially irrelevant and dangerous results. Stem cell research is ethical and requires deeper experimentation. From increasing the safety of medicine to developing treatments that cure diseases, stem cells are the key to success. Stem cells can also be used to determine how diseases and injuries progress and affect certain cells within the body. Furthermore, using stem cells for research purposes will save money by cutting out some if not all animal testing, provide safer and better medications, as well as allow the allocation of saved resources to other research endeavors.